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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 147    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 148
 149    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 157    }
 158
 159    STAR_MAPPING = {
 160        "except": "EXCEPT",
 161        "replace": "REPLACE",
 162    }
 163
 164    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 165        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 166        "seconds": "second",
 167        "minutes": "minute",
 168        "hours": "hour",
 169        "days": "day",
 170        "weeks": "week",
 171        "months": "month",
 172        "quarters": "quarter",
 173        "years": "year",
 174    }
 175
 176    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 177
 178    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 179
 180    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 181
 182    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 183        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 184        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 193        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 200        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 202        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 209        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 211        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 213        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 216        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 236        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237    }
 238
 239    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 240    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 241
 242    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 243    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 244        exp.Select,
 245        exp.From,
 246        exp.Where,
 247        exp.With,
 248    )
 249
 250    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 251    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 252        exp.Column,
 253        exp.Literal,
 254        exp.Neg,
 255        exp.Paren,
 256    )
 257
 258    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 259
 260    # Autofilled
 261    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 262    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 263    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 264    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 265    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 266    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 267    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 268    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 269    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 270
 271    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 272
 273    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 274    QUOTE_START = "'"
 275    QUOTE_END = "'"
 276    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 277    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 278    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 279    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 280
 281    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 282    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 283    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 284    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 290
 291    __slots__ = (
 292        "pretty",
 293        "identify",
 294        "normalize",
 295        "pad",
 296        "_indent",
 297        "normalize_functions",
 298        "unsupported_level",
 299        "max_unsupported",
 300        "leading_comma",
 301        "max_text_width",
 302        "comments",
 303        "unsupported_messages",
 304        "_escaped_quote_end",
 305        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 306        "_cache",
 307    )
 308
 309    def __init__(
 310        self,
 311        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 312        identify: str | bool = False,
 313        normalize: bool = False,
 314        pad: int = 2,
 315        indent: int = 2,
 316        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 317        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 318        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 319        leading_comma: bool = False,
 320        max_text_width: int = 80,
 321        comments: bool = True,
 322    ):
 323        import sqlglot
 324
 325        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 326        self.identify = identify
 327        self.normalize = normalize
 328        self.pad = pad
 329        self._indent = indent
 330        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 331        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 332        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 333        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 334        self.comments = comments
 335
 336        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 337        self.normalize_functions = (
 338            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 339        )
 340
 341        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 342        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 343        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 344        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 345
 346    def generate(
 347        self,
 348        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 349        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 350    ) -> str:
 351        """
 352        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 353
 354        Args:
 355            expression: The syntax tree.
 356            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 357                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 358
 359        Returns:
 360            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 361        """
 362        if cache is not None:
 363            self._cache = cache
 364
 365        self.unsupported_messages = []
 366        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 367        self._cache = None
 368
 369        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 370            return sql
 371
 372        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 373            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 374                logger.warning(msg)
 375        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 376            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 377
 378        if self.pretty:
 379            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 380        return sql
 381
 382    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 383        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 384            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 385        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 386
 387    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 388        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 389
 390    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 391        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 392
 393    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 394        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 395        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 396        return comment
 397
 398    def maybe_comment(
 399        self,
 400        sql: str,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 402        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        comments = (
 405            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 406            if self.comments
 407            else None
 408        )
 409
 410        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 411            return sql
 412
 413        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 414        comments_sql = sep.join(
 415            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 416        )
 417
 418        if not comments_sql:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 422            return (
 423                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 424                if sql[0].isspace()
 425                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 426            )
 427
 428        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 429
 430    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 431        this_sql = self.indent(
 432            self.sql(expression)
 433            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 434            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 435            level=1,
 436            pad=0,
 437        )
 438        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 439
 440    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 441        original = self.identify
 442        self.identify = False
 443        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 444        self.identify = original
 445        return result
 446
 447    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 448        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 449            return name.upper()
 450        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 451            return name.lower()
 452        return name
 453
 454    def indent(
 455        self,
 456        sql: str,
 457        level: int = 0,
 458        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 459        skip_first: bool = False,
 460        skip_last: bool = False,
 461    ) -> str:
 462        if not self.pretty:
 463            return sql
 464
 465        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 466        lines = sql.split("\n")
 467
 468        return "\n".join(
 469            line
 470            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 471            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 472            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 473        )
 474
 475    def sql(
 476        self,
 477        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 478        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 479        comment: bool = True,
 480    ) -> str:
 481        if not expression:
 482            return ""
 483
 484        if isinstance(expression, str):
 485            return expression
 486
 487        if key:
 488            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 489
 490        if self._cache is not None:
 491            expression_id = hash(expression)
 492
 493            if expression_id in self._cache:
 494                return self._cache[expression_id]
 495
 496        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 497
 498        if callable(transform):
 499            sql = transform(self, expression)
 500        elif transform:
 501            sql = transform
 502        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 503            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 504
 505            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 506                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 507            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 508                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 510                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 511            else:
 512                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 513        else:
 514            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 515
 516        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 517
 518        if self._cache is not None:
 519            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 520        return sql
 521
 522    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 523        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 524        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 525        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 526
 527    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 528        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 529        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 530        options = expression.args.get("options")
 531        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 532        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 533        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 534        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 535        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 536
 537    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 538        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 539            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 540        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 541        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 542
 543    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 544        return ".".join(
 545            self.sql(part)
 546            for part in (
 547                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 548                expression.args.get("db"),
 549                expression.args.get("table"),
 550                expression.args.get("this"),
 551            )
 552            if part
 553        )
 554
 555    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 558        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 559        return f"{position}{this}"
 560
 561    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 562        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 563        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 564        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 565        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 566        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 567        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 569        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 570
 571        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 572
 573    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 575        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 576        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 577
 578    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 579        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 580
 581    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 582        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 583            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 584        else:
 585            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586
 587        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 588
 589    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 590        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 591    ) -> str:
 592        this = ""
 593        if expression.this is not None:
 594            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 595            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 596
 597        start = expression.args.get("start")
 598        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 599        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 600        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 601        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 602        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 603        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 604        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 605        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 606        cycle_sql = ""
 607
 608        if cycle is not None:
 609            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 610            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 611
 612        sequence_opts = ""
 613        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 614            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 615            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 616
 617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 618        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 619
 620        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 621
 622    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 623        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 624
 625    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 626        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 627        if desc is not None:
 628            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 629        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 630
 631    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 633        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 634        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 635
 636    def createable_sql(
 637        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 638    ) -> str:
 639        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 640
 641    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 643        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 644        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 645
 646        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 647
 648        properties_sql = ""
 649        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 650            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 651        ):
 652            properties_sql = self.sql(
 653                exp.Properties(
 654                    expressions=[
 655                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 657                    ]
 658                )
 659            )
 660
 661        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 662        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 663        if expression_sql:
 664            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 665
 666            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 667                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 668                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 669                        exp.Properties(
 670                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 671                        ),
 672                        wrapped=False,
 673                    )
 674                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 675                else:
 676                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 677
 678        postindex_props_sql = ""
 679        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 680            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 681                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 682                wrapped=False,
 683                prefix=" ",
 684            )
 685
 686        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 687        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 688        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 689
 690        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 691        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 692
 693        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 694        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 695            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 696                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 697                sep=" ",
 698                prefix=" ",
 699                wrapped=False,
 700            )
 701
 702        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 703
 704        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 705        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 706            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 707                exp.Properties(
 708                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 709                ),
 710                sep=" ",
 711                prefix=" ",
 712                wrapped=False,
 713            )
 714
 715        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 716        no_schema_binding = (
 717            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 718        )
 719
 720        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 721        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 722
 723        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 724        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 725
 726    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 728        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 729
 730        if when:
 731            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 732            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 733            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 734
 735        return f"CLONE {this}"
 736
 737    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 738        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 739
 740    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 741        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 742        if with_:
 743            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 744        return sql
 745
 746    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 747        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 748        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 749
 750        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 751
 752    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 753        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 754        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 755
 756    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 757        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 759        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 760        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 761
 762    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        if self.BIT_START:
 765            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 766        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 767
 768    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        if self.HEX_START:
 771            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 772        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 773
 774    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.BYTE_START:
 777            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 778        return this
 779
 780    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 781        string = expression.this
 782        if self.RAW_START:
 783            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
 784        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 785        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 786
 787    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 790        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 791        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 792
 793    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 794        type_value = expression.this
 795        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 796        nested = ""
 797        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 798        values = ""
 799        if interior:
 800            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 801                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 802                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 803                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 804                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 805                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 806            else:
 807                nested = f"({interior})"
 808
 809        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 810
 811    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 812        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 813        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 814        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 815        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 816
 817    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 820        using_sql = (
 821            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 822            if expression.args.get("using")
 823            else ""
 824        )
 825        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 826        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 827        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 828        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 829        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 830
 831    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 834        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 835        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 836        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 837        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 838        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 839        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 840        return (
 841            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 842        )
 843
 844    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 845        return self.prepend_ctes(
 846            expression,
 847            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 848        )
 849
 850    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 851        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 852
 853    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 854        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 855        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 856        count = expression.args.get("count")
 857        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 858        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 859            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 860        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 861        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 862
 863    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 866        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 867
 868    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 869        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 870            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 871        return ""
 872
 873    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 874        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 875        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 876        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 877        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 879        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 880        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 881        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 882        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 883        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 884        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 885        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 886        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 887        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 888
 889    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 890        text = expression.name
 891        lower = text.lower()
 892        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 893        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 894        if (
 895            expression.quoted
 896            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 897            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 898            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 899        ):
 900            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 901        return text
 902
 903    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 904        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 905        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 906        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 907        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 908        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 909
 910    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 911        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 912        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 913
 914    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 915        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 916
 917    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 918        root_properties = []
 919        with_properties = []
 920
 921        for p in expression.expressions:
 922            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 923            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 924                with_properties.append(p)
 925            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 926                root_properties.append(p)
 927
 928        return self.root_properties(
 929            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 930        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 931
 932    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 933        if properties.expressions:
 934            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 935        return ""
 936
 937    def properties(
 938        self,
 939        properties: exp.Properties,
 940        prefix: str = "",
 941        sep: str = ", ",
 942        suffix: str = "",
 943        wrapped: bool = True,
 944    ) -> str:
 945        if properties.expressions:
 946            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 947            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 948            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 949        return ""
 950
 951    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 952        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 953
 954    def locate_properties(
 955        self, properties: exp.Properties
 956    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 957        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 958            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 959        }
 960
 961        for p in properties.expressions:
 962            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 963            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 978                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 979
 980        return properties_locs
 981
 982    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 983        property_cls = expression.__class__
 984        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 985            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 986
 987        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 988        if not property_name:
 989            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 990
 991        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 992
 993    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 994        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 995        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 996        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 997
 998    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 999        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1000        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1001        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1002
1003    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1004        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1005        local = expression.args.get("local")
1006        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1007        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1008        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1009        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1010        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1011
1012    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1013        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1014        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1015        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1016
1017    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1018        if expression.args.get("default"):
1019            property = "DEFAULT"
1020        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1021            property = "ON"
1022        else:
1023            property = "OFF"
1024        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1025
1026    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1027        if expression.args.get("no"):
1028            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1029        if expression.args.get("default"):
1030            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1031
1032        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1033        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1034
1035    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1036        default = expression.args.get("default")
1037        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1038        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1039        if default or minimum or maximum:
1040            if default:
1041                prop = "DEFAULT"
1042            elif minimum:
1043                prop = "MINIMUM"
1044            else:
1045                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1046            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1047        units = expression.args.get("units")
1048        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1049        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1050
1051    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1052        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1053        always = expression.args.get("always")
1054        default = expression.args.get("default")
1055        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1056        never = expression.args.get("never")
1057
1058        if autotemp is not None:
1059            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1060        elif always:
1061            prop = "ALWAYS"
1062        elif default:
1063            prop = "DEFAULT"
1064        elif manual:
1065            prop = "MANUAL"
1066        elif never:
1067            prop = "NEVER"
1068        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1069
1070    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1071        no = expression.args.get("no")
1072        no = " NO" if no else ""
1073        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1074        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1075
1076        for_ = ""
1077        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1078            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1079        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1080            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1081        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1082            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1083        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1084
1085    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1086        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1087        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1088        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1089        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1090        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1091        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1092
1093    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1094        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1095        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1096        statistics_sql = ""
1097        if statistics is not None:
1098            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1099        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1100
1101    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1102        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1103
1104        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1105            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1106        else:
1107            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1108
1109        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1110        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1111        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1112
1113        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1114        partition_sql = (
1115            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1116        )
1117        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1118        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1119        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1120        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1121        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1122        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1123        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1124
1125    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1126        return self.prepend_ctes(
1127            expression,
1128            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1129        )
1130
1131    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1132        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1133
1134    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1136
1137    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1138        return expression.name.upper()
1139
1140    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1141        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1142        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1143        if constraint:
1144            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1145        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1146        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1147        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1148        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1149        if expressions:
1150            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1151        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1152
1153    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1154        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1155
1156    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1157        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1158        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1159        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1160        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1161        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1162        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1163        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1164        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1165        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1166        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1167        null = expression.args.get("null")
1168        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1169        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1170
1171    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1172        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1173
1174    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1175        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1176        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1177        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1178        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1179
1180    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1181        table = ".".join(
1182            part
1183            for part in [
1184                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1185                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1186                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1187            ]
1188            if part
1189        )
1190
1191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1192        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1193        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1194        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1195        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1196        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1197        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1198        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1199        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1200        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1201
1202        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1203
1204    def tablesample_sql(
1205        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1206    ) -> str:
1207        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1208            table = expression.this.copy()
1209            table.set("alias", None)
1210            this = self.sql(table)
1211            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1212        else:
1213            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214            alias = ""
1215        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1216        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1217        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1218        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1219        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1220        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1221        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1222        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1223        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1224        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1225        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1226        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1227        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1228            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1229        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1230        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1231        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1232        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1233
1234    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236
1237        if expression.this:
1238            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1240            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1241            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1242            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1243            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1244
1245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1246        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1247        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1248        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1249        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1250        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1251
1252    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1253        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1254
1255    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1257        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1258        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1259        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1260        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1261        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1262        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1263        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1264
1265    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1266        args = self.expressions(expression)
1267        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1268        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1269        values = (
1270            f"({values})"
1271            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1272            else values
1273        )
1274        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1275
1276    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1277        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1278
1279    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1280        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1281        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1282        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1283
1284    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1285        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1286
1287    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1288        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1289        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1290        grouping_sets = (
1291            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1292        )
1293
1294        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1295        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1296            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1297        else:
1298            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1299            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1300
1301        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1302        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1303            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1304        else:
1305            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1306            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1307
1308        groupings = csv(
1309            grouping_sets,
1310            cube_sql,
1311            rollup_sql,
1312            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1313            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1314        )
1315
1316        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1317            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1318
1319        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1320
1321    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1323        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1324
1325    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1326        op_sql = " ".join(
1327            op
1328            for op in (
1329                expression.method,
1330                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1331                expression.side,
1332                expression.kind,
1333                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1334            )
1335            if op
1336        )
1337        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1338        using = expression.args.get("using")
1339
1340        if not on_sql and using:
1341            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1342
1343        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1344
1345        if on_sql:
1346            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1347            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1348            if using:
1349                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1350            else:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1352        elif not op_sql:
1353            return f", {this_sql}"
1354
1355        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1356        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1357
1358    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1359        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1360        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1361        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1362
1363    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365
1366        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1367            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1368
1369        if expression.args.get("view"):
1370            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1371            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1372            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1373            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1374            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1375            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1376
1377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1378        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1379        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1380
1381    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        args = ", ".join(
1384            sql
1385            for sql in (
1386                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1387                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1388            )
1389            if sql
1390        )
1391        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1392
1393    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1396
1397    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1398        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1399        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1402        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1403        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1404        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1405        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1406
1407    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1408        expressions = (
1409            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1410        )
1411        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1412        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1413
1414    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1415        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1416
1417    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1418        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1419            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1420            return ""
1421
1422        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1423        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1424        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1425        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1426
1427        if wait is not None:
1428            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1429                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1430            else:
1431                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1432
1433        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1434
1435    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1436        text = expression.this or ""
1437        if expression.is_string:
1438            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1439        return text
1440
1441    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1442        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1443        if self.pretty:
1444            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1445        return text
1446
1447    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1448        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1449        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1450        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1451        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1452        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1453        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1454        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1455        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1456        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1457        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1458        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1459
1460    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1461        return "NULL"
1462
1463    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1464        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1465
1466    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1469        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1470
1471    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1472        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1473
1474    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1475        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1476
1477    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1478        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1479
1480    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1481        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1482        asc = not desc
1483
1484        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1485        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1486        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1487        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1488        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1489
1490        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1491        nulls_sort_change = ""
1492        if nulls_first and (
1493            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1494        ):
1495            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1496        elif (
1497            nulls_last
1498            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1499            and not nulls_are_last
1500        ):
1501            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1502
1503        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1504            self.unsupported(
1505                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1506            )
1507            nulls_sort_change = ""
1508
1509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1510
1511    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1512        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1513        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1514        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1515        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1516        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1517        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1518        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1519        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1520        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1521        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1522        definition_sqls = [
1523            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1524            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1525        ]
1526        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1527        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1528        body = "".join(
1529            (
1530                partition,
1531                order,
1532                measures,
1533                rows,
1534                after,
1535                pattern,
1536                define,
1537            )
1538        )
1539        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1540        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1541        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1542
1543    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1544        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1545
1546        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1547            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1548        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1549            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1550
1551        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1552
1553        return csv(
1554            *sqls,
1555            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1556            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1557            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1558            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1559            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1560            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1561            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1562            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1563            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1564            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1565            sep="",
1566        )
1567
1568    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1569        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1570    ) -> t.List[str]:
1571        return [
1572            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1573            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1574        ]
1575
1576    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1577        return [
1578            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1579            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1580            if expression.args.get("windows")
1581            else "",
1582        ]
1583
1584    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1585        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1586        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1587        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1588
1589    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1590        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1591        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1592        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1593        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1594        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1595
1596        if kind:
1597            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1598                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1599            else:
1600                if kind == "STRUCT":
1601                    expressions = self.expressions(
1602                        sqls=[
1603                            self.sql(
1604                                exp.Struct(
1605                                    expressions=[
1606                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1607                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1608                                        )
1609                                        for e in expression.expressions
1610                                    ]
1611                                )
1612                            )
1613                        ]
1614                    )
1615                kind = ""
1616
1617        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1618        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1619            expression,
1620            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1621            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1622            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1623        )
1624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1625
1626    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1628        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1629        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1630        return f"{this}{sql}"
1631
1632    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1633        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1634
1635    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1636        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1637        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1638        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1639        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1640        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1641
1642    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1645        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1646
1647    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1649        kind = expression.text("kind")
1650        if kind:
1651            kind = f"{kind}."
1652        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1653
1654    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1655        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1656
1657    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1658        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1659        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1660
1661        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1662        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1663
1664        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1665        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1666
1667    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1668        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1669        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1670
1671    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1672        return self.prepend_ctes(
1673            expression,
1674            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1675        )
1676
1677    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1678        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1679        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1680        return f"UNION{kind}"
1681
1682    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1683        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1684        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1685        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1686            columns = alias.columns
1687            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1688        else:
1689            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1690        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1691        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1692        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1693        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1694        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1695
1696    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1697        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1698        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1699
1700    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1703        order = expression.args.get("order")
1704        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1705        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1706        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1707        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1708
1709        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1710
1711        first = expression.args.get("first")
1712        if first is None:
1713            first = ""
1714        else:
1715            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1716
1717        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1718            return f"{this} {alias}"
1719
1720        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1721        return f"{this} ({args})"
1722
1723    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1724        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1725        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1726
1727    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1728        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1729        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1730        end = (
1731            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1732            or "CURRENT ROW"
1733        )
1734        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1735
1736    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1739        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1740
1741    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1744        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1745        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1746
1747    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1748        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1749        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1750
1751        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1752
1753    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1754        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1755
1756    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1757        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1758
1759    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1761        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1762            this = self.wrap(this)
1763        return f"ANY {this}"
1764
1765    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1766        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1767
1768    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1770        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1771
1772        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1773            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1774            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1775
1776        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1777
1778        if default:
1779            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1780
1781        statements.append("END")
1782
1783        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1784            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1785
1786        return " ".join(statements)
1787
1788    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1791        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1792
1793    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1794        order = expression.args.get("order")
1795        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1796        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1797
1798    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1800        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1801        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1802
1803    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1804        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1805
1806        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1807            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1808        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1809            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1810        else:
1811            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1812
1813    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1814        expressions = expression.expressions
1815        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1816            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1817        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1818
1819    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1820        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1821        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1822
1823    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1825        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1826        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1827        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1828        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1829        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1830        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1831        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1832
1833    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1834        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1835        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1836        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1837        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1838
1839    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1840        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1841
1842    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1843        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1844        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1845        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1846
1847    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1848        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1849
1850    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1851        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1852        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1853        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1854        if unique_keys is not None:
1855            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1856        else:
1857            unique_keys = ""
1858        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1859        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1860        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1861        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1862        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1863        return self.func(
1864            "JSON_OBJECT",
1865            *expression.expressions,
1866            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1867        )
1868
1869    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1872        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1873        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1874        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1875        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1876
1877    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1880        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1881        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1882        with_ = (
1883            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1884            if expressions
1885            else ""
1886        )
1887        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1888
1889    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1890        query = expression.args.get("query")
1891        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1892        field = expression.args.get("field")
1893        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1894
1895        if query:
1896            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1897        elif unnest:
1898            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1899        elif field:
1900            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1901        else:
1902            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1903
1904        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1905
1906    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1907        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1908
1909    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1910        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1911        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1912            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1913        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1914
1915        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1916            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1917            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1918
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920        if this:
1921            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1922            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1923
1924        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1925
1926    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1927        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1928
1929    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1931        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1932        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1933        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1934        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1935        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1936
1937    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1938        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1939
1940    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1941        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1942            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1943        else:
1944            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1945            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1946
1947        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1948
1949    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1950        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1951        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1953        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1954
1955    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1956        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1957
1958    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1959        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1960        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1961        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1962
1963    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1965
1966    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1969        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1970
1971    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1972        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1973
1974    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1975        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1976
1977    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1978        if not self.pretty:
1979            return self.binary(expression, op)
1980
1981        sqls = tuple(
1982            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1983            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1984        )
1985
1986        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1987        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1988
1989    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1990        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1991
1992    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1993        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1994
1995    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1996        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1997
1998    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1999        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2000
2001    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2002        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2003
2004    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2005        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2006
2007    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
2008        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2009
2010    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2011        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2013
2014    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2015        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2016
2017    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2019
2020    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2023        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2024        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2025        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2026
2027    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2030        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2031        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2032        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2033        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2034        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2035        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2036        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2037
2038    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2039        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2040        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2041        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2042        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2043
2044        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2045            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2046
2047        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2048
2049    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2050        return "BEGIN"
2051
2052    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2053        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2054        if chain is not None:
2055            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2056
2057        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2058
2059    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2060        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2061        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2062        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2063
2064    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066
2067        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2068        if dtype:
2069            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2070            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2071            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2072            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2073            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2074
2075        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2076        if default:
2077            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2078
2079        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2080            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2081
2082        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2083
2084    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2085        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2086            # Remove db from tables
2087            expression = expression.transform(
2088                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2089            )
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2092
2093    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2094        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2095
2096        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2097            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2098        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2099            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2100        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2101            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2102        else:
2103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2104
2105        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2106        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2107
2108    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2109        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2110        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2111        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2112
2113    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2116        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2117
2118        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2119        if enforced is not None:
2120            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2121
2122        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2123
2124    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2125        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2126        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2127
2128        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2129        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2130        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2131
2132    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2134
2135    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2137
2138    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2139        return self.sql(
2140            exp.Cast(
2141                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2142                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2143            )
2144        )
2145
2146    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2148
2149    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2150        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2151            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2152        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2153
2154    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2156
2157    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2159
2160    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2162
2163    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2164        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2165
2166    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2168
2169    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2171
2172    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2173        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2174
2175    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2176        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2177
2178    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2180
2181    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2183
2184    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2185        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2186
2187    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2188        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2189            return self.sql(
2190                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2191            )
2192        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2193
2194    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2195        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2196
2197    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2198        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2199
2200    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2201        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2202
2203    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2204        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2205
2206    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2207        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2208
2209    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2210        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2211
2212    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2213        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2214
2215    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2217
2218    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2220
2221    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2223
2224    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2225        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2226
2227    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2228        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2229
2230    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2231        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2232
2233    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2234        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2235
2236    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2237        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2238        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2241        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2242
2243    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2244        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2245        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2246
2247    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2248        args = []
2249        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2250            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2251                for value in arg_value:
2252                    args.append(value)
2253            else:
2254                args.append(arg_value)
2255
2256        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2257
2258    def func(
2259        self,
2260        name: str,
2261        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2262        prefix: str = "(",
2263        suffix: str = ")",
2264    ) -> str:
2265        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2266
2267    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2268        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2269        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2270            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2271        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2272
2273    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2274        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2275
2276    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2277        return format_time(
2278            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2279        )
2280
2281    def expressions(
2282        self,
2283        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2284        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2285        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2286        flat: bool = False,
2287        indent: bool = True,
2288        sep: str = ", ",
2289        prefix: str = "",
2290    ) -> str:
2291        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2292
2293        if not expressions:
2294            return ""
2295
2296        if flat:
2297            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2298
2299        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2300
2301        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2302        pad = " " * self.pad
2303        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2304
2305        result_sqls = []
2306        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2307            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2308            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2309
2310            if self.pretty:
2311                if self.leading_comma:
2312                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2313                else:
2314                    result_sqls.append(
2315                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2316                    )
2317            else:
2318                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2319
2320        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2321        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2322
2323    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2324        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2325        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2326        if flat:
2327            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2328        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2329
2330    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2331        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2332        if not property_name:
2333            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2334        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2335
2336    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2338        op = self.seg(op)
2339        return self.query_modifiers(
2340            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2341        )
2342
2343    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2344        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2345
2346    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2347        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2348
2349    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2351        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2352        expressions = (
2353            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2354        )
2355        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2356
2357    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2360        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2361
2362    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2364
2365    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2366        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2367        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2368        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2369        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2370
2371        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2372        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2373            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2374            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2375                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2376        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2377            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2378                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2379            else:
2380                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2381        else:
2382            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2383        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2384
2385    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2388        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2389        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2390
2391    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2392        if expression.args.get("format"):
2393            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2394
2395        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2396
2397    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2400        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2401        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2402        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2403
2404    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2406        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2407        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2408        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2409
2410    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2411        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2412
2413    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2414        return ""
2415
2416
2417def cached_generator(
2418    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2419) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2420    """Returns a cached generator."""
2421    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2422    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2423    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 145    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 146
 147    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 148    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 149
 150    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 158    }
 159
 160    STAR_MAPPING = {
 161        "except": "EXCEPT",
 162        "replace": "REPLACE",
 163    }
 164
 165    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 166        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 167        "seconds": "second",
 168        "minutes": "minute",
 169        "hours": "hour",
 170        "days": "day",
 171        "weeks": "week",
 172        "months": "month",
 173        "quarters": "quarter",
 174        "years": "year",
 175    }
 176
 177    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 178
 179    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 180
 181    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 182
 183    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 184        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 185        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 189        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 194        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 203        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 210        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 217        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 219        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 237        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238    }
 239
 240    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 241    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 242
 243    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 244    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 245        exp.Select,
 246        exp.From,
 247        exp.Where,
 248        exp.With,
 249    )
 250
 251    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 252    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 253        exp.Column,
 254        exp.Literal,
 255        exp.Neg,
 256        exp.Paren,
 257    )
 258
 259    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 260
 261    # Autofilled
 262    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 263    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 264    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 265    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 266    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 267    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 268    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 269    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 270    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 271
 272    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 273
 274    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 275    QUOTE_START = "'"
 276    QUOTE_END = "'"
 277    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 278    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 279    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 280    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 281
 282    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 283    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 284    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 290    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 291
 292    __slots__ = (
 293        "pretty",
 294        "identify",
 295        "normalize",
 296        "pad",
 297        "_indent",
 298        "normalize_functions",
 299        "unsupported_level",
 300        "max_unsupported",
 301        "leading_comma",
 302        "max_text_width",
 303        "comments",
 304        "unsupported_messages",
 305        "_escaped_quote_end",
 306        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 307        "_cache",
 308    )
 309
 310    def __init__(
 311        self,
 312        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 313        identify: str | bool = False,
 314        normalize: bool = False,
 315        pad: int = 2,
 316        indent: int = 2,
 317        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 318        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 319        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 320        leading_comma: bool = False,
 321        max_text_width: int = 80,
 322        comments: bool = True,
 323    ):
 324        import sqlglot
 325
 326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 327        self.identify = identify
 328        self.normalize = normalize
 329        self.pad = pad
 330        self._indent = indent
 331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 333        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 334        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 335        self.comments = comments
 336
 337        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 338        self.normalize_functions = (
 339            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 340        )
 341
 342        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 343        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 344        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 345        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 346
 347    def generate(
 348        self,
 349        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 350        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 351    ) -> str:
 352        """
 353        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 354
 355        Args:
 356            expression: The syntax tree.
 357            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 358                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 359
 360        Returns:
 361            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 362        """
 363        if cache is not None:
 364            self._cache = cache
 365
 366        self.unsupported_messages = []
 367        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 368        self._cache = None
 369
 370        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 371            return sql
 372
 373        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 374            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 375                logger.warning(msg)
 376        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 377            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 378
 379        if self.pretty:
 380            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 381        return sql
 382
 383    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 385            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 386        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 387
 388    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 389        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 390
 391    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 392        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 393
 394    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 395        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 396        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 397        return comment
 398
 399    def maybe_comment(
 400        self,
 401        sql: str,
 402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 403        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 404    ) -> str:
 405        comments = (
 406            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 407            if self.comments
 408            else None
 409        )
 410
 411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 412            return sql
 413
 414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 415        comments_sql = sep.join(
 416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 417        )
 418
 419        if not comments_sql:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 423            return (
 424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 425                if sql[0].isspace()
 426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 427            )
 428
 429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 430
 431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 432        this_sql = self.indent(
 433            self.sql(expression)
 434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 436            level=1,
 437            pad=0,
 438        )
 439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 440
 441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 442        original = self.identify
 443        self.identify = False
 444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 445        self.identify = original
 446        return result
 447
 448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 450            return name.upper()
 451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 452            return name.lower()
 453        return name
 454
 455    def indent(
 456        self,
 457        sql: str,
 458        level: int = 0,
 459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 460        skip_first: bool = False,
 461        skip_last: bool = False,
 462    ) -> str:
 463        if not self.pretty:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 467        lines = sql.split("\n")
 468
 469        return "\n".join(
 470            line
 471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 474        )
 475
 476    def sql(
 477        self,
 478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 480        comment: bool = True,
 481    ) -> str:
 482        if not expression:
 483            return ""
 484
 485        if isinstance(expression, str):
 486            return expression
 487
 488        if key:
 489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 490
 491        if self._cache is not None:
 492            expression_id = hash(expression)
 493
 494            if expression_id in self._cache:
 495                return self._cache[expression_id]
 496
 497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 498
 499        if callable(transform):
 500            sql = transform(self, expression)
 501        elif transform:
 502            sql = transform
 503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 505
 506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 512            else:
 513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 514        else:
 515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 516
 517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 518
 519        if self._cache is not None:
 520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 521        return sql
 522
 523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 527
 528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 531        options = expression.args.get("options")
 532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 537
 538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 543
 544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 545        return ".".join(
 546            self.sql(part)
 547            for part in (
 548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 549                expression.args.get("db"),
 550                expression.args.get("table"),
 551                expression.args.get("this"),
 552            )
 553            if part
 554        )
 555
 556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 560        return f"{position}{this}"
 561
 562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 571
 572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 573
 574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 578
 579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 581
 582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 585        else:
 586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 587
 588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 589
 590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 592    ) -> str:
 593        this = ""
 594        if expression.this is not None:
 595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 597
 598        start = expression.args.get("start")
 599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 607        cycle_sql = ""
 608
 609        if cycle is not None:
 610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 612
 613        sequence_opts = ""
 614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 617
 618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 620
 621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 622
 623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 625
 626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 628        if desc is not None:
 629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 631
 632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 636
 637    def createable_sql(
 638        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 639    ) -> str:
 640        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 641
 642    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 644        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 645        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 646
 647        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 648
 649        properties_sql = ""
 650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 652        ):
 653            properties_sql = self.sql(
 654                exp.Properties(
 655                    expressions=[
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 658                    ]
 659                )
 660            )
 661
 662        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 663        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 664        if expression_sql:
 665            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 666
 667            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 668                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 669                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 670                        exp.Properties(
 671                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 672                        ),
 673                        wrapped=False,
 674                    )
 675                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 676                else:
 677                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 678
 679        postindex_props_sql = ""
 680        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 681            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 682                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 683                wrapped=False,
 684                prefix=" ",
 685            )
 686
 687        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 688        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 689        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 690
 691        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 692        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 693
 694        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 696            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 698                sep=" ",
 699                prefix=" ",
 700                wrapped=False,
 701            )
 702
 703        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 704
 705        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 707            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                exp.Properties(
 709                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 710                ),
 711                sep=" ",
 712                prefix=" ",
 713                wrapped=False,
 714            )
 715
 716        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 717        no_schema_binding = (
 718            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 719        )
 720
 721        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 722        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 723
 724        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 725        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 726
 727    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 729        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 730
 731        if when:
 732            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 733            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 734            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 735
 736        return f"CLONE {this}"
 737
 738    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 739        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 740
 741    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 742        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 743        if with_:
 744            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 745        return sql
 746
 747    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 748        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 749        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 750
 751        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 752
 753    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 754        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 755        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 756
 757    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 758        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 760        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 761        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 762
 763    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 765        if self.BIT_START:
 766            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 767        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 768
 769    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        if self.HEX_START:
 772            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 773        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 774
 775    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        if self.BYTE_START:
 778            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 779        return this
 780
 781    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 782        string = expression.this
 783        if self.RAW_START:
 784            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
 785        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 786        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 787
 788    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 790        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 791        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 792        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 793
 794    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 795        type_value = expression.this
 796        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 797        nested = ""
 798        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 799        values = ""
 800        if interior:
 801            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 802                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 803                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 804                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 805                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 806                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 807            else:
 808                nested = f"({interior})"
 809
 810        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 811
 812    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 813        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 814        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 815        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 816        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 817
 818    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 821        using_sql = (
 822            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 823            if expression.args.get("using")
 824            else ""
 825        )
 826        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 827        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 828        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 829        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 831
 832    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 835        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 836        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 837        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 838        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 839        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 840        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 841        return (
 842            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 843        )
 844
 845    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 846        return self.prepend_ctes(
 847            expression,
 848            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 849        )
 850
 851    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 852        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 853
 854    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 855        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 856        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 857        count = expression.args.get("count")
 858        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 859        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 860            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 861        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 862        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 863
 864    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 867        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 868
 869    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 870        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 871            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 872        return ""
 873
 874    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 875        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 876        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 877        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 878        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 880        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 881        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 882        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 883        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 885        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 886        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 887        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 888        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 889
 890    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 891        text = expression.name
 892        lower = text.lower()
 893        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 894        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 895        if (
 896            expression.quoted
 897            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 898            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 899            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 900        ):
 901            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 902        return text
 903
 904    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 905        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 906        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 907        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 908        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 909        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 910
 911    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 912        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 913        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 914
 915    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 916        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 917
 918    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 919        root_properties = []
 920        with_properties = []
 921
 922        for p in expression.expressions:
 923            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 924            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 925                with_properties.append(p)
 926            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 927                root_properties.append(p)
 928
 929        return self.root_properties(
 930            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 931        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 932
 933    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 934        if properties.expressions:
 935            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 936        return ""
 937
 938    def properties(
 939        self,
 940        properties: exp.Properties,
 941        prefix: str = "",
 942        sep: str = ", ",
 943        suffix: str = "",
 944        wrapped: bool = True,
 945    ) -> str:
 946        if properties.expressions:
 947            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 948            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 949            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 950        return ""
 951
 952    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 953        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 954
 955    def locate_properties(
 956        self, properties: exp.Properties
 957    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 958        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 959            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 960        }
 961
 962        for p in properties.expressions:
 963            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 964            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 979                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 980
 981        return properties_locs
 982
 983    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 984        property_cls = expression.__class__
 985        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 986            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 987
 988        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 989        if not property_name:
 990            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 991
 992        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 993
 994    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 995        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 997        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 998
 999    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1000        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1001        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1002        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1003
1004    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        local = expression.args.get("local")
1007        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1008        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1009        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1010        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1011        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1012
1013    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1014        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1016        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1017
1018    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1019        if expression.args.get("default"):
1020            property = "DEFAULT"
1021        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1022            property = "ON"
1023        else:
1024            property = "OFF"
1025        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1026
1027    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1028        if expression.args.get("no"):
1029            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1030        if expression.args.get("default"):
1031            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1032
1033        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1034        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1035
1036    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1037        default = expression.args.get("default")
1038        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1039        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1040        if default or minimum or maximum:
1041            if default:
1042                prop = "DEFAULT"
1043            elif minimum:
1044                prop = "MINIMUM"
1045            else:
1046                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1047            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1048        units = expression.args.get("units")
1049        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1050        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1051
1052    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1053        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1054        always = expression.args.get("always")
1055        default = expression.args.get("default")
1056        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1057        never = expression.args.get("never")
1058
1059        if autotemp is not None:
1060            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1061        elif always:
1062            prop = "ALWAYS"
1063        elif default:
1064            prop = "DEFAULT"
1065        elif manual:
1066            prop = "MANUAL"
1067        elif never:
1068            prop = "NEVER"
1069        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1070
1071    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1072        no = expression.args.get("no")
1073        no = " NO" if no else ""
1074        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1075        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1076
1077        for_ = ""
1078        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1079            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1080        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1081            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1082        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1083            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1084        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1085
1086    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1087        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1088        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1089        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1090        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1091        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1092        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1093
1094    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1095        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1096        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1097        statistics_sql = ""
1098        if statistics is not None:
1099            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1100        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1101
1102    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1103        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1104
1105        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1106            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1107        else:
1108            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1109
1110        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1111        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1112        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1113
1114        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1115        partition_sql = (
1116            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1117        )
1118        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1119        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1120        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1121        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1122        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1123        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1125
1126    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return self.prepend_ctes(
1128            expression,
1129            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1130        )
1131
1132    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1133        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1134
1135    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1137
1138    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1139        return expression.name.upper()
1140
1141    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1142        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1143        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1144        if constraint:
1145            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1146        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1147        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1148        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1150        if expressions:
1151            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1152        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1153
1154    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1155        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1156
1157    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1158        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1159        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1160        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1161        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1162        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1163        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1164        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1165        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1166        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1167        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1168        null = expression.args.get("null")
1169        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1170        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1171
1172    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1173        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1174
1175    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1176        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1177        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1178        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1179        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1180
1181    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1182        table = ".".join(
1183            part
1184            for part in [
1185                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1186                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1187                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1188            ]
1189            if part
1190        )
1191
1192        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1193        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1194        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1195        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1196        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1197        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1198        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1199        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1200        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1201        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1202
1203        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1204
1205    def tablesample_sql(
1206        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1207    ) -> str:
1208        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1209            table = expression.this.copy()
1210            table.set("alias", None)
1211            this = self.sql(table)
1212            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1213        else:
1214            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215            alias = ""
1216        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1217        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1218        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1219        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1220        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1221        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1222        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1223        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1224        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1226        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1227        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1228        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1229            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1230        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1231        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1232        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1233        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1234
1235    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237
1238        if expression.this:
1239            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1241            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1242            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1243            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1244            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1245
1246        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1248        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1249        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1250        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1251        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1252
1253    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1254        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1255
1256    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1259        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1260        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1262        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1263        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1265
1266    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1267        args = self.expressions(expression)
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1269        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1270        values = (
1271            f"({values})"
1272            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1273            else values
1274        )
1275        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1276
1277    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1278        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1279
1280    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1283        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1284
1285    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1286        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1287
1288    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1289        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1290        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1291        grouping_sets = (
1292            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1293        )
1294
1295        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1296        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1297            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1298        else:
1299            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1300            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1301
1302        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1303        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1304            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1305        else:
1306            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1307            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1308
1309        groupings = csv(
1310            grouping_sets,
1311            cube_sql,
1312            rollup_sql,
1313            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1314            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1315        )
1316
1317        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1318            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1319
1320        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1321
1322    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1323        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1324        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1325
1326    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1327        op_sql = " ".join(
1328            op
1329            for op in (
1330                expression.method,
1331                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1332                expression.side,
1333                expression.kind,
1334                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1335            )
1336            if op
1337        )
1338        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        using = expression.args.get("using")
1340
1341        if not on_sql and using:
1342            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1343
1344        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345
1346        if on_sql:
1347            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1348            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1349            if using:
1350                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1351            else:
1352                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1353        elif not op_sql:
1354            return f", {this_sql}"
1355
1356        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1357        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1358
1359    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1360        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1362        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1363
1364    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1368            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1369
1370        if expression.args.get("view"):
1371            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1372            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1373            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1374            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1375            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1376            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1377
1378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1380        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1381
1382    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        args = ", ".join(
1385            sql
1386            for sql in (
1387                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1388                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1389            )
1390            if sql
1391        )
1392        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1393
1394    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1397
1398    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1400        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1403        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1404        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1405        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1406        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1407
1408    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1409        expressions = (
1410            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1411        )
1412        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1413        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1414
1415    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1416        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1417
1418    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1419        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1420            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1421            return ""
1422
1423        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1425        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1426        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1427
1428        if wait is not None:
1429            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1430                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1431            else:
1432                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1433
1434        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1435
1436    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1437        text = expression.this or ""
1438        if expression.is_string:
1439            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1440        return text
1441
1442    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1444        if self.pretty:
1445            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1446        return text
1447
1448    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1449        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1450        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1451        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1452        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1453        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1454        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1455        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1456        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1457        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1458        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1459        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1460
1461    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1462        return "NULL"
1463
1464    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1465        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1466
1467    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1470        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1471
1472    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1473        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1474
1475    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1476        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1477
1478    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1479        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1480
1481    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1482        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1483        asc = not desc
1484
1485        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1486        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1487        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1488        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1489        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1490
1491        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1492        nulls_sort_change = ""
1493        if nulls_first and (
1494            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1495        ):
1496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1497        elif (
1498            nulls_last
1499            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1500            and not nulls_are_last
1501        ):
1502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1503
1504        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1505            self.unsupported(
1506                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1507            )
1508            nulls_sort_change = ""
1509
1510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1511
1512    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1513        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1514        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1515        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1516        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1517        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1518        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1519        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1520        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1521        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1522        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1523        definition_sqls = [
1524            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1525            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1526        ]
1527        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1528        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1529        body = "".join(
1530            (
1531                partition,
1532                order,
1533                measures,
1534                rows,
1535                after,
1536                pattern,
1537                define,
1538            )
1539        )
1540        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1541        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1542        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1543
1544    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1545        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1546
1547        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1548            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1549        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1550            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1551
1552        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1553
1554        return csv(
1555            *sqls,
1556            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1557            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1558            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1559            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1560            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1561            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1562            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1563            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1564            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1565            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1566            sep="",
1567        )
1568
1569    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1570        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1571    ) -> t.List[str]:
1572        return [
1573            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1574            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1575        ]
1576
1577    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1578        return [
1579            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1580            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1581            if expression.args.get("windows")
1582            else "",
1583        ]
1584
1585    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1586        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1587        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1588        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1589
1590    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1591        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1592        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1593        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1594        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1595        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1596
1597        if kind:
1598            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1599                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1600            else:
1601                if kind == "STRUCT":
1602                    expressions = self.expressions(
1603                        sqls=[
1604                            self.sql(
1605                                exp.Struct(
1606                                    expressions=[
1607                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1608                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1609                                        )
1610                                        for e in expression.expressions
1611                                    ]
1612                                )
1613                            )
1614                        ]
1615                    )
1616                kind = ""
1617
1618        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1619        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1620            expression,
1621            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1622            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1623            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1624        )
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1626
1627    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1629        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1630        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1631        return f"{this}{sql}"
1632
1633    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1634        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1635
1636    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1637        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1638        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1639        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1640        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1641        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1642
1643    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1646        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1647
1648    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1650        kind = expression.text("kind")
1651        if kind:
1652            kind = f"{kind}."
1653        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1654
1655    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1656        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1657
1658    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1661
1662        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1663        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1664
1665        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1667
1668    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1669        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1670        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1671
1672    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1673        return self.prepend_ctes(
1674            expression,
1675            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1676        )
1677
1678    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1679        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1680        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1681        return f"UNION{kind}"
1682
1683    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1684        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1685        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1686        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1687            columns = alias.columns
1688            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1689        else:
1690            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1692        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1693        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1694        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1695        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1696
1697    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1698        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1699        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1700
1701    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1704        order = expression.args.get("order")
1705        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1706        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1707        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1708        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1709
1710        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1711
1712        first = expression.args.get("first")
1713        if first is None:
1714            first = ""
1715        else:
1716            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1717
1718        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1719            return f"{this} {alias}"
1720
1721        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1722        return f"{this} ({args})"
1723
1724    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1725        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1726        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1727
1728    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1729        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1730        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1731        end = (
1732            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1733            or "CURRENT ROW"
1734        )
1735        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1736
1737    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1740        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1741
1742    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1745        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1746        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1747
1748    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1749        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1750        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1751
1752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1753
1754    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1755        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1756
1757    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1758        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1759
1760    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1763            this = self.wrap(this)
1764        return f"ANY {this}"
1765
1766    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1767        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1768
1769    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1772
1773        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1774            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1775            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1776
1777        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1778
1779        if default:
1780            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1781
1782        statements.append("END")
1783
1784        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1785            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1786
1787        return " ".join(statements)
1788
1789    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1792        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1793
1794    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1795        order = expression.args.get("order")
1796        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1797        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1798
1799    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1802        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1803
1804    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1805        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1806
1807        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1808            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1809        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1810            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1811        else:
1812            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1813
1814    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1815        expressions = expression.expressions
1816        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1817            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1818        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1819
1820    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1821        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1822        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1823
1824    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1827        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1828        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1829        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1830        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1831        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1832        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1833
1834    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1835        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1838        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1839
1840    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1841        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1842
1843    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1844        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1845        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1846        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1847
1848    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1850
1851    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1852        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1853        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1854        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1855        if unique_keys is not None:
1856            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1857        else:
1858            unique_keys = ""
1859        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1860        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1861        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1862        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1863        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1864        return self.func(
1865            "JSON_OBJECT",
1866            *expression.expressions,
1867            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1868        )
1869
1870    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1873        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1874        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1875        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1876        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1877
1878    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1881        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1882        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1883        with_ = (
1884            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1885            if expressions
1886            else ""
1887        )
1888        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1889
1890    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1891        query = expression.args.get("query")
1892        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1893        field = expression.args.get("field")
1894        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1895
1896        if query:
1897            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1898        elif unnest:
1899            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1900        elif field:
1901            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1902        else:
1903            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1904
1905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1906
1907    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1908        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1909
1910    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1911        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1912        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1913            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1914        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1915
1916        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1917            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1918            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1919
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        if this:
1922            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1923            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1924
1925        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1926
1927    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1928        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1929
1930    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1934        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1935        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1936        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1937
1938    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1939        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1940
1941    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1942        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1943            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1944        else:
1945            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1946            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1947
1948        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1949
1950    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1951        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1952        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1954        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1955
1956    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1957        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1958
1959    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1960        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1961        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1963
1964    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1966
1967    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1970        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1971
1972    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1973        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1974
1975    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1976        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1977
1978    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1979        if not self.pretty:
1980            return self.binary(expression, op)
1981
1982        sqls = tuple(
1983            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1984            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1985        )
1986
1987        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1988        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1989
1990    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1991        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1992
1993    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1994        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1995
1996    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1997        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1998
1999    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2000        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2001
2002    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2003        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2004
2005    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2007
2008    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
2009        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2010
2011    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2012        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2014
2015    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2016        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2017
2018    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2020
2021    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2023        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2024        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2025        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2026        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2027
2028    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2031        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2032        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2033        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2034        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2035        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2036        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2037        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2038
2039    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2040        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2041        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2042        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2043        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2044
2045        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2046            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2047
2048        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2049
2050    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2051        return "BEGIN"
2052
2053    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2054        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2055        if chain is not None:
2056            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2057
2058        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2059
2060    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2061        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2062        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2063        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2064
2065    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067
2068        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2069        if dtype:
2070            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2071            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2072            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2073            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2074            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2075
2076        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2077        if default:
2078            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2079
2080        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2081            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2082
2083        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2084
2085    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2086        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2087            # Remove db from tables
2088            expression = expression.transform(
2089                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2090            )
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2093
2094    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2095        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2096
2097        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2098            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2103        else:
2104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2105
2106        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2107        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2108
2109    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2110        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2111        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2112        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2113
2114    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2117        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2118
2119        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2120        if enforced is not None:
2121            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2122
2123        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2124
2125    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2126        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2128
2129        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2130        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2131        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2132
2133    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2134        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2135
2136    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2138
2139    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2140        return self.sql(
2141            exp.Cast(
2142                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2143                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2144            )
2145        )
2146
2147    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2149
2150    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2151        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2152            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2153        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2154
2155    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2157
2158    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2160
2161    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2163
2164    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2166
2167    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2169
2170    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2172
2173    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2175
2176    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2177        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2178
2179    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2181
2182    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2184
2185    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2186        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2187
2188    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2189        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2190            return self.sql(
2191                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2192            )
2193        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2194
2195    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2196        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2197
2198    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2200
2201    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2203
2204    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2206
2207    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2208        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2209
2210    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2212
2213    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2215
2216    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2218
2219    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2221
2222    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2224
2225    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2226        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2227
2228    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2230
2231    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2232        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2233
2234    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2235        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2236
2237    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2238        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2239        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2241        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2242        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2243
2244    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2245        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2247
2248    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2249        args = []
2250        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2251            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2252                for value in arg_value:
2253                    args.append(value)
2254            else:
2255                args.append(arg_value)
2256
2257        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2258
2259    def func(
2260        self,
2261        name: str,
2262        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2263        prefix: str = "(",
2264        suffix: str = ")",
2265    ) -> str:
2266        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2267
2268    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2269        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2270        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2271            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2272        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2273
2274    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2275        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2276
2277    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2278        return format_time(
2279            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2280        )
2281
2282    def expressions(
2283        self,
2284        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2285        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2286        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2287        flat: bool = False,
2288        indent: bool = True,
2289        sep: str = ", ",
2290        prefix: str = "",
2291    ) -> str:
2292        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2293
2294        if not expressions:
2295            return ""
2296
2297        if flat:
2298            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2299
2300        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2301
2302        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2303        pad = " " * self.pad
2304        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2305
2306        result_sqls = []
2307        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2308            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2309            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2310
2311            if self.pretty:
2312                if self.leading_comma:
2313                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2314                else:
2315                    result_sqls.append(
2316                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2317                    )
2318            else:
2319                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2320
2321        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2322        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2323
2324    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2325        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2326        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2327        if flat:
2328            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2329        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2330
2331    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2332        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2333        if not property_name:
2334            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2335        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2336
2337    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        op = self.seg(op)
2340        return self.query_modifiers(
2341            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2342        )
2343
2344    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2345        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2346
2347    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2348        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2349
2350    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2353        expressions = (
2354            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2355        )
2356        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2357
2358    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2361        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2362
2363    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2365
2366    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2367        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2368        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2369        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2370        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2371
2372        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2373        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2374            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2375            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2376                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2377        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2378            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2379                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2380            else:
2381                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2382        else:
2383            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2384        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2385
2386    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2389        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2390        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2391
2392    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2393        if expression.args.get("format"):
2394            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2395
2396        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2397
2398    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2401        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2402        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2403        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2404
2405    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2408        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2409        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2410
2411    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2412        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2413
2414    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2415        return ""

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
310    def __init__(
311        self,
312        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
313        identify: str | bool = False,
314        normalize: bool = False,
315        pad: int = 2,
316        indent: int = 2,
317        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
318        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
319        max_unsupported: int = 3,
320        leading_comma: bool = False,
321        max_text_width: int = 80,
322        comments: bool = True,
323    ):
324        import sqlglot
325
326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
327        self.identify = identify
328        self.normalize = normalize
329        self.pad = pad
330        self._indent = indent
331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
333        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
334        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
335        self.comments = comments
336
337        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
338        self.normalize_functions = (
339            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
340        )
341
342        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
343        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
344        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
345        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
247    @classmethod
248    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
249        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
250
251        Args:
252            text: The text to check.
253            identify:
254                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
255                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
256
257        Returns:
258            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
259        """
260        if identify is True or identify == "always":
261            return True
262
263        if identify == "safe":
264            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
265
266        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
RAW_START: Optional[str] = None
RAW_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
347    def generate(
348        self,
349        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
350        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
351    ) -> str:
352        """
353        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
354
355        Args:
356            expression: The syntax tree.
357            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
358                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
359
360        Returns:
361            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
362        """
363        if cache is not None:
364            self._cache = cache
365
366        self.unsupported_messages = []
367        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
368        self._cache = None
369
370        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
371            return sql
372
373        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
374            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
375                logger.warning(msg)
376        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
377            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
378
379        if self.pretty:
380            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
381        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
383    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
385            raise UnsupportedError(message)
386        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
388    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
389        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
391    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
392        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
394    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
395        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
396        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
397        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
399    def maybe_comment(
400        self,
401        sql: str,
402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
403        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
404    ) -> str:
405        comments = (
406            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
407            if self.comments
408            else None
409        )
410
411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
412            return sql
413
414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
415        comments_sql = sep.join(
416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
417        )
418
419        if not comments_sql:
420            return sql
421
422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
423            return (
424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
425                if sql[0].isspace()
426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
427            )
428
429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
432        this_sql = self.indent(
433            self.sql(expression)
434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
436            level=1,
437            pad=0,
438        )
439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
442        original = self.identify
443        self.identify = False
444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
445        self.identify = original
446        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
450            return name.upper()
451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
452            return name.lower()
453        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
455    def indent(
456        self,
457        sql: str,
458        level: int = 0,
459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
460        skip_first: bool = False,
461        skip_last: bool = False,
462    ) -> str:
463        if not self.pretty:
464            return sql
465
466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
467        lines = sql.split("\n")
468
469        return "\n".join(
470            line
471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
474        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
476    def sql(
477        self,
478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
480        comment: bool = True,
481    ) -> str:
482        if not expression:
483            return ""
484
485        if isinstance(expression, str):
486            return expression
487
488        if key:
489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
490
491        if self._cache is not None:
492            expression_id = hash(expression)
493
494            if expression_id in self._cache:
495                return self._cache[expression_id]
496
497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
498
499        if callable(transform):
500            sql = transform(self, expression)
501        elif transform:
502            sql = transform
503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
505
506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
512            else:
513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
514        else:
515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
516
517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
518
519        if self._cache is not None:
520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
521        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
531        options = expression.args.get("options")
532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
545        return ".".join(
546            self.sql(part)
547            for part in (
548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
549                expression.args.get("db"),
550                expression.args.get("table"),
551                expression.args.get("this"),
552            )
553            if part
554        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
560        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
571
572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
585        else:
586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
587
588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
592    ) -> str:
593        this = ""
594        if expression.this is not None:
595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
597
598        start = expression.args.get("start")
599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
607        cycle_sql = ""
608
609        if cycle is not None:
610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
612
613        sequence_opts = ""
614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
617
618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
620
621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
628        if desc is not None:
629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
637    def createable_sql(
638        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
639    ) -> str:
640        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
642    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
644        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
645        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
646
647        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
648
649        properties_sql = ""
650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
652        ):
653            properties_sql = self.sql(
654                exp.Properties(
655                    expressions=[
656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
658                    ]
659                )
660            )
661
662        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
663        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
664        if expression_sql:
665            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
666
667            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
668                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
669                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
670                        exp.Properties(
671                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
672                        ),
673                        wrapped=False,
674                    )
675                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
676                else:
677                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
678
679        postindex_props_sql = ""
680        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
681            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
682                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
683                wrapped=False,
684                prefix=" ",
685            )
686
687        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
688        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
689        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
690
691        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
692        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
693
694        postcreate_props_sql = ""
695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
696            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
698                sep=" ",
699                prefix=" ",
700                wrapped=False,
701            )
702
703        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
704
705        postexpression_props_sql = ""
706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
707            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
708                exp.Properties(
709                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
710                ),
711                sep=" ",
712                prefix=" ",
713                wrapped=False,
714            )
715
716        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
717        no_schema_binding = (
718            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
719        )
720
721        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
722        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
723
724        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
725        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
727    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
729        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
730
731        if when:
732            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
733            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
734            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
735
736        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
738    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
739        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
741    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
742        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
743        if with_:
744            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
745        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
747    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
748        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
749        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
750
751        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
753    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
754        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
755        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
757    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
758        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
759        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
760        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
761        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
763    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
765        if self.BIT_START:
766            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
767        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
769    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
771        if self.HEX_START:
772            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
773        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
775    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
777        if self.BYTE_START:
778            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
779        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
781    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
782        string = expression.this
783        if self.RAW_START:
784            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
785        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
786        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
788    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
790        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
791        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
792        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
794    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
795        type_value = expression.this
796        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
797        nested = ""
798        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
799        values = ""
800        if interior:
801            if expression.args.get("nested"):
802                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
803                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
804                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
805                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
806                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
807            else:
808                nested = f"({interior})"
809
810        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
812    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
813        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
814        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
815        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
816        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
818    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
821        using_sql = (
822            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
823            if expression.args.get("using")
824            else ""
825        )
826        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
827        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
828        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
829        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
832    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
834        kind = expression.args["kind"]
835        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
836        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
837        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
838        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
839        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
840        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
841        return (
842            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
843        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
845    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
846        return self.prepend_ctes(
847            expression,
848            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
849        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
851    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
852        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
854    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
855        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
856        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
857        count = expression.args.get("count")
858        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
859        if expression.args.get("percent"):
860            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
861        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
862        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
864    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
866        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
867        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
869    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
870        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
871            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
872        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
874    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
875        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
876        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
877        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
878        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
879        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
880        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
881        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
882        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
883        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
885        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
886        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
887        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
888        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
890    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
891        text = expression.name
892        lower = text.lower()
893        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
894        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
895        if (
896            expression.quoted
897            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
898            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
899            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
900        ):
901            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
902        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
904    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
905        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
906        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
907        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
908        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
909        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
911    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
912        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
913        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
915    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
916        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
918    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
919        root_properties = []
920        with_properties = []
921
922        for p in expression.expressions:
923            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
924            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
925                with_properties.append(p)
926            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
927                root_properties.append(p)
928
929        return self.root_properties(
930            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
931        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
933    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
934        if properties.expressions:
935            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
936        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
938    def properties(
939        self,
940        properties: exp.Properties,
941        prefix: str = "",
942        sep: str = ", ",
943        suffix: str = "",
944        wrapped: bool = True,
945    ) -> str:
946        if properties.expressions:
947            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
948            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
949            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
950        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
952    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
953        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
955    def locate_properties(
956        self, properties: exp.Properties
957    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
958        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
959            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
960        }
961
962        for p in properties.expressions:
963            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
964            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
979                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
980
981        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
983    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
984        property_cls = expression.__class__
985        if property_cls == exp.Property:
986            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
987
988        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
989        if not property_name:
990            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
991
992        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
994    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
995        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
997        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 999    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1000        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1001        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1002        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1004    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        local = expression.args.get("local")
1007        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1008        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1009        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1010        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1011        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1013    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1014        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1016        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1018    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1019        if expression.args.get("default"):
1020            property = "DEFAULT"
1021        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1022            property = "ON"
1023        else:
1024            property = "OFF"
1025        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1027    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1028        if expression.args.get("no"):
1029            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1030        if expression.args.get("default"):
1031            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1032
1033        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1034        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1036    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1037        default = expression.args.get("default")
1038        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1039        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1040        if default or minimum or maximum:
1041            if default:
1042                prop = "DEFAULT"
1043            elif minimum:
1044                prop = "MINIMUM"
1045            else:
1046                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1047            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1048        units = expression.args.get("units")
1049        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1050        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1052    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1053        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1054        always = expression.args.get("always")
1055        default = expression.args.get("default")
1056        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1057        never = expression.args.get("never")
1058
1059        if autotemp is not None:
1060            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1061        elif always:
1062            prop = "ALWAYS"
1063        elif default:
1064            prop = "DEFAULT"
1065        elif manual:
1066            prop = "MANUAL"
1067        elif never:
1068            prop = "NEVER"
1069        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1071    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1072        no = expression.args.get("no")
1073        no = " NO" if no else ""
1074        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1075        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1076
1077        for_ = ""
1078        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1079            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1080        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1081            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1082        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1083            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1084        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1086    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1087        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1088        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1089        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1090        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1091        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1092        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1094    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1095        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1096        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1097        statistics_sql = ""
1098        if statistics is not None:
1099            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1100        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1102    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1103        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1104
1105        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1106            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1107        else:
1108            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1109
1110        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1111        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1112        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1113
1114        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1115        partition_sql = (
1116            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1117        )
1118        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1119        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1120        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1121        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1122        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1123        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1126    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return self.prepend_ctes(
1128            expression,
1129            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1130        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1132    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1133        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1135    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1138    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1139        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1141    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1142        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1143        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1144        if constraint:
1145            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1146        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1147        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1148        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1150        if expressions:
1151            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1152        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1154    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1155        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1157    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1158        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1159        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1160        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1161        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1162        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1163        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1164        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1165        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1166        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1167        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1168        null = expression.args.get("null")
1169        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1170        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1172    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1173        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1175    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1176        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1177        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1178        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1179        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1181    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1182        table = ".".join(
1183            part
1184            for part in [
1185                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1186                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1187                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1188            ]
1189            if part
1190        )
1191
1192        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1193        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1194        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1195        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1196        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1197        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1198        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1199        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1200        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1201        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1202
1203        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1205    def tablesample_sql(
1206        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1207    ) -> str:
1208        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1209            table = expression.this.copy()
1210            table.set("alias", None)
1211            this = self.sql(table)
1212            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1213        else:
1214            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215            alias = ""
1216        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1217        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1218        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1219        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1220        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1221        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1222        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1223        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1224        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1226        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1227        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1228        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1229            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1230        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1231        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1232        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1233        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1235    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237
1238        if expression.this:
1239            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1241            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1242            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1243            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1244            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1245
1246        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1248        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1249        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1250        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1251        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1253    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1254        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1256    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1259        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1260        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1262        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1263        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1266    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1267        args = self.expressions(expression)
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1269        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1270        values = (
1271            f"({values})"
1272            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1273            else values
1274        )
1275        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1277    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1278        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1280    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1283        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1285    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1286        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1288    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1289        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1290        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1291        grouping_sets = (
1292            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1293        )
1294
1295        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1296        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1297            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1298        else:
1299            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1300            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1301
1302        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1303        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1304            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1305        else:
1306            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1307            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1308
1309        groupings = csv(
1310            grouping_sets,
1311            cube_sql,
1312            rollup_sql,
1313            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1314            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1315        )
1316
1317        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1318            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1319
1320        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1322    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1323        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1324        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1326    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1327        op_sql = " ".join(
1328            op
1329            for op in (
1330                expression.method,
1331                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1332                expression.side,
1333                expression.kind,
1334                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1335            )
1336            if op
1337        )
1338        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        using = expression.args.get("using")
1340
1341        if not on_sql and using:
1342            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1343
1344        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345
1346        if on_sql:
1347            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1348            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1349            if using:
1350                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1351            else:
1352                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1353        elif not op_sql:
1354            return f", {this_sql}"
1355
1356        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1357        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1359    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1360        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1362        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1364    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1368            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1369
1370        if expression.args.get("view"):
1371            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1372            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1373            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1374            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1375            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1376            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1377
1378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1380        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1382    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        args = ", ".join(
1385            sql
1386            for sql in (
1387                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1388                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1389            )
1390            if sql
1391        )
1392        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1394    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1398    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1400        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1403        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1404        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1405        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1406        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1408    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1409        expressions = (
1410            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1411        )
1412        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1413        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1415    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1416        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1418    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1419        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1420            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1421            return ""
1422
1423        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1425        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1426        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1427
1428        if wait is not None:
1429            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1430                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1431            else:
1432                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1433
1434        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1436    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1437        text = expression.this or ""
1438        if expression.is_string:
1439            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1440        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1442    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1444        if self.pretty:
1445            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1446        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1448    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1449        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1450        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1451        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1452        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1453        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1454        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1455        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1456        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1457        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1458        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1459        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1461    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1462        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1464    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1465        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1467    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1470        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1472    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1473        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1475    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1476        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1478    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1479        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1481    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1482        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1483        asc = not desc
1484
1485        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1486        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1487        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1488        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1489        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1490
1491        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1492        nulls_sort_change = ""
1493        if nulls_first and (
1494            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1495        ):
1496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1497        elif (
1498            nulls_last
1499            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1500            and not nulls_are_last
1501        ):
1502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1503
1504        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1505            self.unsupported(
1506                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1507            )
1508            nulls_sort_change = ""
1509
1510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1512    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1513        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1514        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1515        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1516        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1517        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1518        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1519        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1520        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1521        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1522        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1523        definition_sqls = [
1524            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1525            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1526        ]
1527        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1528        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1529        body = "".join(
1530            (
1531                partition,
1532                order,
1533                measures,
1534                rows,
1535                after,
1536                pattern,
1537                define,
1538            )
1539        )
1540        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1541        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1542        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1544    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1545        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1546
1547        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1548            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1549        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1550            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1551
1552        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1553
1554        return csv(
1555            *sqls,
1556            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1557            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1558            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1559            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1560            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1561            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1562            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1563            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1564            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1565            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1566            sep="",
1567        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1569    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1570        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1571    ) -> t.List[str]:
1572        return [
1573            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1574            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1575        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1577    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1578        return [
1579            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1580            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1581            if expression.args.get("windows")
1582            else "",
1583        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1585    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1586        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1587        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1588        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1590    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1591        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1592        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1593        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1594        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1595        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1596
1597        if kind:
1598            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1599                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1600            else:
1601                if kind == "STRUCT":
1602                    expressions = self.expressions(
1603                        sqls=[
1604                            self.sql(
1605                                exp.Struct(
1606                                    expressions=[
1607                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1608                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1609                                        )
1610                                        for e in expression.expressions
1611                                    ]
1612                                )
1613                            )
1614                        ]
1615                    )
1616                kind = ""
1617
1618        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1619        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1620            expression,
1621            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1622            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1623            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1624        )
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1627    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1629        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1630        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1631        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1633    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1634        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1636    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1637        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1638        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1639        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1640        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1641        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1643    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1646        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1648    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1650        kind = expression.text("kind")
1651        if kind:
1652            kind = f"{kind}."
1653        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1655    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1656        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1658    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1661
1662        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1663        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1664
1665        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1668    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1669        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1670        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1672    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1673        return self.prepend_ctes(
1674            expression,
1675            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1676        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1678    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1679        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1680        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1681        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1683    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1684        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1685        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1686        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1687            columns = alias.columns
1688            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1689        else:
1690            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1692        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1693        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1694        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1695        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1697    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1698        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1699        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1701    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1704        order = expression.args.get("order")
1705        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1706        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1707        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1708        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1709
1710        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1711
1712        first = expression.args.get("first")
1713        if first is None:
1714            first = ""
1715        else:
1716            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1717
1718        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1719            return f"{this} {alias}"
1720
1721        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1722        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1724    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1725        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1726        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1728    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1729        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1730        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1731        end = (
1732            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1733            or "CURRENT ROW"
1734        )
1735        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1737    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1740        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1742    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1745        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1746        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1748    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1749        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1750        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1751
1752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1754    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1755        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1757    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1758        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1760    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1763            this = self.wrap(this)
1764        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1766    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1767        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1769    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1772
1773        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1774            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1775            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1776
1777        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1778
1779        if default:
1780            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1781
1782        statements.append("END")
1783
1784        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1785            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1786
1787        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1789    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1792        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1794    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1795        order = expression.args.get("order")
1796        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1797        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1799    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1802        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1804    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1805        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1806
1807        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1808            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1809        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1810            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1811        else:
1812            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1814    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1815        expressions = expression.expressions
1816        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1817            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1818        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1820    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1821        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1822        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1824    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1827        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1828        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1829        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1830        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1831        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1832        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1834    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1835        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1838        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1840    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1841        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1843    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1844        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1845        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1846        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1848    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1851    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1852        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1853        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1854        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1855        if unique_keys is not None:
1856            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1857        else:
1858            unique_keys = ""
1859        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1860        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1861        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1862        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1863        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1864        return self.func(
1865            "JSON_OBJECT",
1866            *expression.expressions,
1867            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1868        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1870    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1873        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1874        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1875        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1876        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1878    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1881        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1882        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1883        with_ = (
1884            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1885            if expressions
1886            else ""
1887        )
1888        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1890    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1891        query = expression.args.get("query")
1892        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1893        field = expression.args.get("field")
1894        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1895
1896        if query:
1897            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1898        elif unnest:
1899            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1900        elif field:
1901            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1902        else:
1903            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1904
1905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1907    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1908        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1910    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1911        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1912        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1913            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1914        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1915
1916        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1917            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1918            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1919
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        if this:
1922            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1923            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1924
1925        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1927    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1928        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1930    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1934        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1935        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1936        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1938    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1939        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1941    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1942        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1943            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1944        else:
1945            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1946            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1947
1948        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1950    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1951        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1952        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1954        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1956    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1957        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1959    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1960        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1961        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1964    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1967    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1970        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1972    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1973        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1975    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1976        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1978    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1979        if not self.pretty:
1980            return self.binary(expression, op)
1981
1982        sqls = tuple(
1983            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1984            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1985        )
1986
1987        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1988        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1990    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1991        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1993    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1994        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1996    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1997        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1999    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2000        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2002    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2003        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2005    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
2008    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
2009        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2011    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2012        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2015    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2016        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2018    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2021    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2023        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2024        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2025        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2026        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2028    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2031        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2032        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2033        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2034        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2035        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2036        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2037        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2039    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2040        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2041        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2042        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2043        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2044
2045        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2046            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2047
2048        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2050    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2051        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2053    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2054        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2055        if chain is not None:
2056            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2057
2058        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2060    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2061        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2062        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2063        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2065    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067
2068        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2069        if dtype:
2070            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2071            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2072            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2073            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2074            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2075
2076        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2077        if default:
2078            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2079
2080        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2081            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2082
2083        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2085    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2086        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2087            # Remove db from tables
2088            expression = expression.transform(
2089                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2090            )
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2094    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2095        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2096
2097        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2098            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2103        else:
2104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2105
2106        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2107        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2109    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2110        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2111        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2112        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2114    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2117        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2118
2119        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2120        if enforced is not None:
2121            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2122
2123        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2125    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2126        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2128
2129        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2130        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2131        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2133    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2134        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2136    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2139    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2140        return self.sql(
2141            exp.Cast(
2142                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2143                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2144            )
2145        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2147    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2150    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2151        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2152            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2153        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2155    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2158    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2161    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2164    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2167    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2170    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2173    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2176    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2177        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2179    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2182    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2185    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2186        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2188    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2189        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2190            return self.sql(
2191                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2192            )
2193        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2195    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2196        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2198    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2201    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2204    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2207    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2208        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2210    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2213    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2216    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2219    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2222    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2225    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2226        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2228    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2231    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2232        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2234    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2235        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2237    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2238        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2239        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2241        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2242        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2244    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2245        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2248    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2249        args = []
2250        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2251            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2252                for value in arg_value:
2253                    args.append(value)
2254            else:
2255                args.append(arg_value)
2256
2257        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2259    def func(
2260        self,
2261        name: str,
2262        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2263        prefix: str = "(",
2264        suffix: str = ")",
2265    ) -> str:
2266        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2268    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2269        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2270        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2271            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2272        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2274    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2275        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2277    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2278        return format_time(
2279            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2280        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2282    def expressions(
2283        self,
2284        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2285        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2286        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2287        flat: bool = False,
2288        indent: bool = True,
2289        sep: str = ", ",
2290        prefix: str = "",
2291    ) -> str:
2292        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2293
2294        if not expressions:
2295            return ""
2296
2297        if flat:
2298            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2299
2300        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2301
2302        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2303        pad = " " * self.pad
2304        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2305
2306        result_sqls = []
2307        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2308            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2309            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2310
2311            if self.pretty:
2312                if self.leading_comma:
2313                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2314                else:
2315                    result_sqls.append(
2316                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2317                    )
2318            else:
2319                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2320
2321        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2322        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2324    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2325        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2326        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2327        if flat:
2328            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2329        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2331    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2332        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2333        if not property_name:
2334            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2335        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2337    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        op = self.seg(op)
2340        return self.query_modifiers(
2341            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2342        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2344    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2345        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2347    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2348        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2350    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2353        expressions = (
2354            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2355        )
2356        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2358    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2361        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2363    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2366    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2367        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2368        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2369        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2370        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2371
2372        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2373        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2374            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2375            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2376                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2377        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2378            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2379                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2380            else:
2381                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2382        else:
2383            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2384        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2386    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2389        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2390        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2392    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2393        if expression.args.get("format"):
2394            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2395
2396        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2398    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2401        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2402        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2403        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2405    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2408        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2409        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2411    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2412        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2414    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2415        return ""
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2418def cached_generator(
2419    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2420) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2421    """Returns a cached generator."""
2422    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2423    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2424    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.