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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  21            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  22        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  23        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  24        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  25        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  27        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  29        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  35        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  36        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  37        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  38        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  39        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  40        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  41        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  42            Default: "upper"
  43        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  44            Default: False
  45        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  46            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  48            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  49            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  50        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  51            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  52            Default: 3
  53        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  54            Default: False
  55        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  56            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  57            line length.
  58            Default: 80
  59        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  60            Default: True
  61    """
  62
  63    TRANSFORMS = {
  64        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  65            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  66        ),
  67        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  68            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  69        ),
  70        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  71        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  77        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  78        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  79        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  85        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  86        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  87        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  88        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  90        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  94        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  97        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 144        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 145        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 146        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 147        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 151    }
 152
 153    STAR_MAPPING = {
 154        "except": "EXCEPT",
 155        "replace": "REPLACE",
 156    }
 157
 158    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 159        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 160        "seconds": "second",
 161        "minutes": "minute",
 162        "hours": "hour",
 163        "days": "day",
 164        "weeks": "week",
 165        "months": "month",
 166        "quarters": "quarter",
 167        "years": "year",
 168    }
 169
 170    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 171
 172    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 173
 174    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 175
 176    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 177        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 178        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 179        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 180        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 181        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 182        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 183        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 184        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 185        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 186        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 191        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 193        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 194        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 195        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 196        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 200        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 202        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 204        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 205        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 207        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 209        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 220        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 222        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 223        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 226        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227    }
 228
 229    JOIN_HINTS = True
 230    TABLE_HINTS = True
 231
 232    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 233    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 234    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 235
 236    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 237
 238    __slots__ = (
 239        "time_mapping",
 240        "time_trie",
 241        "pretty",
 242        "quote_start",
 243        "quote_end",
 244        "identifier_start",
 245        "identifier_end",
 246        "bit_start",
 247        "bit_end",
 248        "hex_start",
 249        "hex_end",
 250        "byte_start",
 251        "byte_end",
 252        "identify",
 253        "normalize",
 254        "string_escape",
 255        "identifier_escape",
 256        "pad",
 257        "index_offset",
 258        "unnest_column_only",
 259        "alias_post_tablesample",
 260        "normalize_functions",
 261        "unsupported_level",
 262        "unsupported_messages",
 263        "null_ordering",
 264        "max_unsupported",
 265        "_indent",
 266        "_escaped_quote_end",
 267        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 268        "_leading_comma",
 269        "_max_text_width",
 270        "_comments",
 271        "_cache",
 272    )
 273
 274    def __init__(
 275        self,
 276        time_mapping=None,
 277        time_trie=None,
 278        pretty=None,
 279        quote_start=None,
 280        quote_end=None,
 281        identifier_start=None,
 282        identifier_end=None,
 283        bit_start=None,
 284        bit_end=None,
 285        hex_start=None,
 286        hex_end=None,
 287        byte_start=None,
 288        byte_end=None,
 289        identify=False,
 290        normalize=False,
 291        string_escape=None,
 292        identifier_escape=None,
 293        pad=2,
 294        indent=2,
 295        index_offset=0,
 296        unnest_column_only=False,
 297        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 298        normalize_functions="upper",
 299        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 300        null_ordering=None,
 301        max_unsupported=3,
 302        leading_comma=False,
 303        max_text_width=80,
 304        comments=True,
 305    ):
 306        import sqlglot
 307
 308        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 309        self.time_trie = time_trie
 310        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 311        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 312        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 313        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 314        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 315        self.bit_start = bit_start
 316        self.bit_end = bit_end
 317        self.hex_start = hex_start
 318        self.hex_end = hex_end
 319        self.byte_start = byte_start
 320        self.byte_end = byte_end
 321        self.identify = identify
 322        self.normalize = normalize
 323        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 324        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 325        self.pad = pad
 326        self.index_offset = index_offset
 327        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 328        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 329        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 330        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 331        self.unsupported_messages = []
 332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 333        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 334        self._indent = indent
 335        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 336        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 337        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 338        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 339        self._comments = comments
 340        self._cache = None
 341
 342    def generate(
 343        self,
 344        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 345        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 346    ) -> str:
 347        """
 348        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 349
 350        Args
 351            expression: the syntax tree.
 352            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 353
 354        Returns
 355            the SQL string.
 356        """
 357        if cache is not None:
 358            self._cache = cache
 359        self.unsupported_messages = []
 360        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 361        self._cache = None
 362
 363        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 364            return sql
 365
 366        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 367            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 368                logger.warning(msg)
 369        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 370            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 371
 372        if self.pretty:
 373            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 374        return sql
 375
 376    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 377        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 378            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 379        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 380
 381    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 382        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 383
 384    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 385        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 386
 387    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 388        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 389        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 390        return comment
 391
 392    def maybe_comment(
 393        self,
 394        sql: str,
 395        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 396        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 397    ) -> str:
 398        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 399
 400        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 401            return sql
 402
 403        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 404        comments_sql = sep.join(
 405            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 406        )
 407
 408        if not comments_sql:
 409            return sql
 410
 411        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 412            return (
 413                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 414                if sql[0].isspace()
 415                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 416            )
 417
 418        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 419
 420    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 421        this_sql = self.indent(
 422            self.sql(expression)
 423            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 424            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 425            level=1,
 426            pad=0,
 427        )
 428        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 429
 430    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 431        original = self.identify
 432        self.identify = False
 433        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 434        self.identify = original
 435        return result
 436
 437    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 438        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 439            return name.upper()
 440        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 441            return name.lower()
 442        return name
 443
 444    def indent(
 445        self,
 446        sql: str,
 447        level: int = 0,
 448        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 449        skip_first: bool = False,
 450        skip_last: bool = False,
 451    ) -> str:
 452        if not self.pretty:
 453            return sql
 454
 455        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 456        lines = sql.split("\n")
 457
 458        return "\n".join(
 459            line
 460            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 461            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 462            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 463        )
 464
 465    def sql(
 466        self,
 467        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 468        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 469        comment: bool = True,
 470    ) -> str:
 471        if not expression:
 472            return ""
 473
 474        if isinstance(expression, str):
 475            return expression
 476
 477        if key:
 478            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 479
 480        if self._cache is not None:
 481            expression_id = hash(expression)
 482
 483            if expression_id in self._cache:
 484                return self._cache[expression_id]
 485
 486        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 487
 488        if callable(transform):
 489            sql = transform(self, expression)
 490        elif transform:
 491            sql = transform
 492        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 493            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 494
 495            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 496                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 497            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 498                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 499            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 500                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 501            else:
 502                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 503        else:
 504            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 505
 506        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 507
 508        if self._cache is not None:
 509            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 510        return sql
 511
 512    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 513        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 514        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 515        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 516
 517    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 518        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 519        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 520        options = expression.args.get("options")
 521        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 522        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 523        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 524        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 525        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 526
 527    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 528        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 529            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 530        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 531        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 532
 533    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 534        return ".".join(
 535            self.sql(part)
 536            for part in (
 537                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 538                expression.args.get("db"),
 539                expression.args.get("table"),
 540                expression.args.get("this"),
 541            )
 542            if part
 543        )
 544
 545    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 547        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 548        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 549        return f"{position}{this}"
 550
 551    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 552        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 553        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 554        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 555        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 556        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 557        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 558        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 559        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 560
 561        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 562
 563    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 565        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 566        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 567
 568    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 569        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 570
 571    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 572        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 573            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 574        else:
 575            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576
 577        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 578
 579    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 580        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 581    ) -> str:
 582        this = ""
 583        if expression.this is not None:
 584            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 585            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 586
 587        start = expression.args.get("start")
 588        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 589        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 590        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 591        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 592        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 593        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 594        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 595        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 596        cycle_sql = ""
 597
 598        if cycle is not None:
 599            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 600            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 601
 602        sequence_opts = ""
 603        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 604            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 605            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 606
 607        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 608        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 609
 610        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 611
 612    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 613        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 614
 615    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 616        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 617        if desc is not None:
 618            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 619        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 620
 621    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 622        return "UNIQUE"
 623
 624    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 625        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 626        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 627        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 628        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 629        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 630            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 631        ):
 632            properties_exp.set(
 633                "properties",
 634                exp.Properties(
 635                    expressions=[
 636                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 638                    ]
 639                ),
 640            )
 641        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 642            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 643            this_properties = self.properties(
 644                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 645                wrapped=False,
 646            )
 647            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 648            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 649            properties_sql = ""
 650        else:
 651            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 652            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 653        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 654        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 655        if expression_sql:
 656            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 657
 658            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 659                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 660                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 661                        exp.Properties(
 662                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 663                        ),
 664                        wrapped=False,
 665                    )
 666                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 667                else:
 668                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 669
 670        postindex_props_sql = ""
 671        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 672            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 673                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 674                wrapped=False,
 675                prefix=" ",
 676            )
 677
 678        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
 679        if indexes:
 680            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
 681            for index in indexes:
 682                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
 683                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
 684                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
 685                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
 686                ind_columns = (
 687                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
 688                    if index.args.get("columns")
 689                    else ""
 690                )
 691                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
 692
 693                if indexes_sql:
 694                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
 695                else:
 696                    indexes_sql.append(
 697                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
 698                        if index.args.get("primary")
 699                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
 700                    )
 701
 702            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
 703        else:
 704            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
 705
 706        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 707        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 708
 709        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 710        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 711            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 712                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 713                sep=" ",
 714                prefix=" ",
 715                wrapped=False,
 716            )
 717
 718        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 719
 720        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 722            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 723                exp.Properties(
 724                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 725                ),
 726                sep=" ",
 727                prefix=" ",
 728                wrapped=False,
 729            )
 730
 731        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 732        no_schema_binding = (
 733            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 734        )
 735
 736        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 737        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 738
 739        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 741
 742    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 744        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 745
 746        if when:
 747            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 748            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 749            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 750
 751        return f"CLONE {this}"
 752
 753    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 754        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 755
 756    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 757        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 758        if with_:
 759            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 760        return sql
 761
 762    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 763        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 764        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 765
 766        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 767
 768    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 769        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 770        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 771
 772    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 773        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 774        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 775        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 776        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 777
 778    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        if self.bit_start:
 781            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 782        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 783
 784    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        if self.hex_start:
 787            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 788        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 789
 790    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        if self.byte_start:
 793            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 794        return this
 795
 796    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 799        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 800        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 801
 802    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 803        type_value = expression.this
 804        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 805        nested = ""
 806        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 807        values = ""
 808        if interior:
 809            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 810                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 811                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 812                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 813                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
 814            else:
 815                nested = f"({interior})"
 816
 817        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 818
 819    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 820        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 821        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 822        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 823        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 824
 825    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 828        using_sql = (
 829            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 830            if expression.args.get("using")
 831            else ""
 832        )
 833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 835        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 841        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 842        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 843        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 844        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 845        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 846        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 847        return (
 848            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 849        )
 850
 851    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 852        return self.prepend_ctes(
 853            expression,
 854            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 855        )
 856
 857    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 858        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 859
 860    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 861        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 862        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 863        count = expression.args.get("count")
 864        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 865        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 866            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 867        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 868        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 869
 870    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 873        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 874
 875    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 876        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 877            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 878        return ""
 879
 880    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 883        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
 884        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
 885
 886    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 887        text = expression.name
 888        lower = text.lower()
 889        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 890        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 891        if (
 892            expression.quoted
 893            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 894            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 895        ):
 896            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 897        return text
 898
 899    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 900        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 901        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 902        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 903        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 904        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 905
 906    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
 907        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 908
 909    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 910        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 911
 912    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 913        root_properties = []
 914        with_properties = []
 915
 916        for p in expression.expressions:
 917            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 918            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 919                with_properties.append(p)
 920            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 921                root_properties.append(p)
 922
 923        return self.root_properties(
 924            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 925        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 926
 927    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 928        if properties.expressions:
 929            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 930        return ""
 931
 932    def properties(
 933        self,
 934        properties: exp.Properties,
 935        prefix: str = "",
 936        sep: str = ", ",
 937        suffix: str = "",
 938        wrapped: bool = True,
 939    ) -> str:
 940        if properties.expressions:
 941            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 942            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 943            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 944        return ""
 945
 946    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 947        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 948
 949    def locate_properties(
 950        self, properties: exp.Properties
 951    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 952        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 953            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 954        }
 955
 956        for p in properties.expressions:
 957            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 958            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 959                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 960            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 961                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 962            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 963                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 964            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 973                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 974
 975        return properties_locs
 976
 977    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 978        property_cls = expression.__class__
 979        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 980            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 981
 982        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 983        if not property_name:
 984            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 985
 986        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 987
 988    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 989        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 990        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 991        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 992
 993    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 994        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 995        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 996        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 997
 998    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
 999        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1000        local = expression.args.get("local")
1001        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1002        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1003        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1004        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1005        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1006
1007    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1008        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1009        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1010        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1011
1012    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1013        if expression.args.get("default"):
1014            property = "DEFAULT"
1015        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1016            property = "ON"
1017        else:
1018            property = "OFF"
1019        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1020
1021    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1022        if expression.args.get("no"):
1023            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1024        if expression.args.get("default"):
1025            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1026
1027        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1028        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1029
1030    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1031        default = expression.args.get("default")
1032        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1033        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1034        if default or minimum or maximum:
1035            if default:
1036                prop = "DEFAULT"
1037            elif minimum:
1038                prop = "MINIMUM"
1039            else:
1040                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1041            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1042        units = expression.args.get("units")
1043        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1044        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1045
1046    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1047        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1048        always = expression.args.get("always")
1049        default = expression.args.get("default")
1050        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1051        never = expression.args.get("never")
1052
1053        if autotemp is not None:
1054            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1055        elif always:
1056            prop = "ALWAYS"
1057        elif default:
1058            prop = "DEFAULT"
1059        elif manual:
1060            prop = "MANUAL"
1061        elif never:
1062            prop = "NEVER"
1063        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1064
1065    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1066        no = expression.args.get("no")
1067        no = " NO" if no else ""
1068        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1069        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1070
1071        for_ = ""
1072        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1073            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1074        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1075            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1076        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1077            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1078        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1079
1080    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1081        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1082        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1083        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1084        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1085        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1086        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1087
1088    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1089        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1090        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1091        statistics_sql = ""
1092        if statistics is not None:
1093            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1094        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1095
1096    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1097        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1098
1099        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1100            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1101        else:
1102            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1103
1104        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1105        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1106        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1107
1108        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1109        partition_sql = (
1110            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1111        )
1112        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1113        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1114        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1115        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1116        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1117        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1118
1119    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1120        return self.prepend_ctes(
1121            expression,
1122            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1123        )
1124
1125    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1126        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1127
1128    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1130
1131    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1132        return expression.name.upper()
1133
1134    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1135        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1136        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1137        if constraint:
1138            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1139        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1140        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1141        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1142        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1143        if expressions:
1144            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1145        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1146
1147    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1148        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1149
1150    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1151        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1152        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1153        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1154        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1155        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1156        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1157        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1158        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1159        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1160        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1161        null = expression.args.get("null")
1162        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1163        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1164
1165    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1166        table = ".".join(
1167            part
1168            for part in [
1169                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1170                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1171                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1172            ]
1173            if part
1174        )
1175
1176        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1177        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1178        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1179        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1180        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1181        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1182        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1183        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1184        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1185        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1186
1187        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1188
1189    def tablesample_sql(
1190        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1191    ) -> str:
1192        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1193            table = expression.this.copy()
1194            table.set("alias", None)
1195            this = self.sql(table)
1196            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1197        else:
1198            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1199            alias = ""
1200        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1201        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1202        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1203        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1204        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1205        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1206        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1207        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1208        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1209        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1210        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1211        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1212        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1213            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1214        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1215        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1216        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1217        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1218
1219    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1220        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1221        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1222        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1223        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1226        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1227
1228    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1229        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1230
1231    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1234        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1235        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1236        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1237        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1238        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1239
1240    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1241        args = self.expressions(expression)
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1244        values = (
1245            f"({values})"
1246            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1247            else values
1248        )
1249        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1250
1251    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1252        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1253
1254    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1255        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1256        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1257        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1258
1259    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1260        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1261
1262    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1263        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1264        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1265        grouping_sets = (
1266            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1267        )
1268
1269        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1270        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1271            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1272        else:
1273            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1274            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1275
1276        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1277        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1278            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1279        else:
1280            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1281            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1282
1283        groupings = csv(
1284            grouping_sets,
1285            cube_sql,
1286            rollup_sql,
1287            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1288            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1289        )
1290
1291        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1292            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1293
1294        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1295
1296    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1297        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1298        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1299
1300    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1301        op_sql = " ".join(
1302            op
1303            for op in (
1304                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1305                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1306                expression.side,
1307                expression.kind,
1308                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1309            )
1310            if op
1311        )
1312        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1313        using = expression.args.get("using")
1314
1315        if not on_sql and using:
1316            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1317
1318        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319
1320        if on_sql:
1321            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1322            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1323            if using:
1324                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1325            else:
1326                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1327        elif not op_sql:
1328            return f", {this_sql}"
1329
1330        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1331        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1332
1333    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1334        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1335        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1336        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1337
1338    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340
1341        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1342            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1343
1344        if expression.args.get("view"):
1345            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1346            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1347            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1348            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1349            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1350            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1351
1352        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1353        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1354        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1355
1356    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1359
1360    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1362        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1363
1364    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1366        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1368        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1369        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1370        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1371        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1372        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1373
1374    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1375        expressions = (
1376            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1377        )
1378        return f"SET{expressions}"
1379
1380    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1381        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1382
1383    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1384        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1385            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1386            return ""
1387
1388        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1389        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1390        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1391        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1392
1393        if wait is not None:
1394            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1395                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1396            else:
1397                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1398
1399        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1400
1401    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1402        text = expression.this or ""
1403        if expression.is_string:
1404            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1405            if self.pretty:
1406                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1407            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1408        return text
1409
1410    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1411        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1412        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1413        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1414        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1415        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1416        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1417        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1418        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1419        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1420        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1421        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1422
1423    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1424        return "NULL"
1425
1426    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1427        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1428
1429    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1431        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1432        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1433
1434    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1435        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1436
1437    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1438        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1439
1440    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1441        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1442
1443    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1444        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1445        asc = not desc
1446
1447        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1448        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1449        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1450        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1451        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1452
1453        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1454        nulls_sort_change = ""
1455        if nulls_first and (
1456            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1457        ):
1458            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1459        elif (
1460            nulls_last
1461            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1462            and not nulls_are_last
1463        ):
1464            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1465
1466        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1467            self.unsupported(
1468                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1469            )
1470            nulls_sort_change = ""
1471
1472        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1473
1474    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1475        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1476        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1477        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1478        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1479        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1480        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1481        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1482        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1483        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1484        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1485        definition_sqls = [
1486            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1487            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1488        ]
1489        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1490        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1491        body = "".join(
1492            (
1493                partition,
1494                order,
1495                measures,
1496                rows,
1497                after,
1498                pattern,
1499                define,
1500            )
1501        )
1502        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1503        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1504        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1505
1506    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1507        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1508
1509        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1510            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1511        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1512            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1513
1514        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1515
1516        return csv(
1517            *sqls,
1518            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1519            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1520            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1521            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1522            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1524            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1525            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1526            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1527            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1528            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1529            sep="",
1530        )
1531
1532    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1533        return [
1534            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1535            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1536            if expression.args.get("windows")
1537            else "",
1538        ]
1539
1540    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1541        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1542        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1543        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1544
1545    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1546        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1547        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1548        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1549        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1550        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1551        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1552        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1553        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1554            expression,
1555            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1556            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1557            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1558        )
1559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1560
1561    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1563        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1564        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1565        return f"{this}{sql}"
1566
1567    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1568        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1569        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1570        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1571        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1572        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1573
1574    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1577        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1578
1579    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        kind = expression.text("kind")
1582        if kind:
1583            kind = f"{kind}."
1584        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1585
1586    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1587        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1588
1589    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1590        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1591        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1592
1593        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1594        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1595
1596        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1597        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1598
1599    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1600        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1601        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1602
1603    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1604        return self.prepend_ctes(
1605            expression,
1606            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1607        )
1608
1609    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1610        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1611        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1612        return f"UNION{kind}"
1613
1614    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1615        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1616        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1617        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1618            columns = alias.columns
1619            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1620        else:
1621            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1622        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1623        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1624        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1625        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1626        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1627
1628    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1629        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1630        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1631
1632    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1634
1635        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1636
1637        order = expression.args.get("order")
1638        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1639
1640        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1641
1642        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1643        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1644
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1647        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1648
1649        first = expression.args.get("first")
1650        if first is not None:
1651            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1652        first = first or ""
1653
1654        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1655            return f"{this} {alias}"
1656
1657        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1658
1659        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1660
1661    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1662        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1663        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1664
1665    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1667        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1668        end = (
1669            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1670            or "CURRENT ROW"
1671        )
1672        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1673
1674    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1676        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1677        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1678
1679    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1682        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1683        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1684
1685    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1686        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1687        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1688
1689        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1690
1691    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1692        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1693
1694    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1697            this = self.wrap(this)
1698        return f"ANY {this}"
1699
1700    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1701        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1702
1703    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1706
1707        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1708            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1709            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1710
1711        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1712
1713        if default:
1714            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1715
1716        statements.append("END")
1717
1718        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1719            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1720
1721        return " ".join(statements)
1722
1723    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1725        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1727
1728    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1729        order = expression.args.get("order")
1730        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1731        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1732
1733    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1736        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1737
1738    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1739        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1740
1741        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1742            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1743        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1744            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1745        else:
1746            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1747
1748    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1749        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1750            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1751        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1752
1753    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1754        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1755        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1756
1757    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1759        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1760        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1761        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1762        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1763        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1764        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1765        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1766
1767    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1768        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1769        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1770        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1771        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1772
1773    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1774        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1775        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
1776
1777    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1778        return self.case_sql(
1779            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1780        )
1781
1782    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1783        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1784        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1785        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1786
1787    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1789
1790    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1792        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1793        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1794        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1795        if unique_keys is not None:
1796            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1797        else:
1798            unique_keys = ""
1799        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1800        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1801        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1802        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1803        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1804        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1805
1806    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1809        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1810        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1811        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1812        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1813
1814    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1816        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1817        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1819        with_ = (
1820            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1821            if expressions
1822            else ""
1823        )
1824        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1825
1826    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1827        query = expression.args.get("query")
1828        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1829        field = expression.args.get("field")
1830        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1831
1832        if query:
1833            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1834        elif unnest:
1835            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1836        elif field:
1837            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1838        else:
1839            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1840
1841        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1842
1843    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1844        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1845
1846    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1847        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1848        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1849            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1850        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1851
1852        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1853            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1854            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1855
1856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1857        if this:
1858            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1859            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1860
1861        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1862
1863    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1864        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1865
1866    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1870        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1871        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1872        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1873
1874    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1875        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1876
1877    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1878        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1879            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1880        else:
1881            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1882            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1883
1884        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1885
1886    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1887        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1888        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1890        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1891
1892    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1893        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1894
1895    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1897        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1899
1900    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1901        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1902
1903    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1906        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1907
1908    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1909        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1910
1911    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1912        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1913
1914    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1915        if not self.pretty:
1916            return self.binary(expression, op)
1917
1918        sqls = tuple(
1919            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1920            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1921        )
1922
1923        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1924        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1925
1926    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1927        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1928
1929    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1930        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1931
1932    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1933        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1934
1935    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1936        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1937
1938    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1939        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1940
1941    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1942        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1943
1944    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1945        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1946
1947    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1948        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1949        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1950
1951    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1952        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1953
1954    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1955        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1956
1957    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1960        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1962        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1963
1964    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1966        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1967        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1968        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1969        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1970        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1971        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1972        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1973        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1974
1975    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1976        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1977        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1978        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1979        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1980
1981        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1982            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1983
1984        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1985
1986    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1987        return "BEGIN"
1988
1989    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1990        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1991        if chain is not None:
1992            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1993
1994        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1995
1996    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1997        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1998        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
1999        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2000
2001    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2003
2004        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2005        if dtype:
2006            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2007            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2008            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2009            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2010            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2011
2012        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2013        if default:
2014            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2015
2016        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2017            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2018
2019        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2020
2021    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2022        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2023            # Remove db from tables
2024            expression = expression.transform(
2025                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2026            )
2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2028        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2029
2030    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2031        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2032
2033        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2034            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2035        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2036            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2037        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2038            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2039        else:
2040            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2041
2042        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2043        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2044
2045    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2046        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2047        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2048        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2049
2050    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2053        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2054
2055        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2056        if enforced is not None:
2057            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2058
2059        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2060
2061    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2062        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2063        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2064
2065        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2066        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2067        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2068
2069    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2070        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2071
2072    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2074
2075    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2076        return self.sql(
2077            exp.Cast(
2078                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2079                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2080            )
2081        )
2082
2083    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2084        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2085
2086    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2087        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2088
2089    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2090        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2091
2092    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2093        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2094
2095    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2096        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2097
2098    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2099        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2100
2101    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2102        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2103
2104    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2105        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2106
2107    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2108        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2109
2110    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2111        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2112
2113    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2114        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2115
2116    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2117        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2118
2119    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2121
2122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2124
2125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2127
2128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2130
2131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2133
2134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2136
2137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2139
2140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2142
2143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2145
2146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2148
2149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2151
2152    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2153        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2154
2155    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2157
2158    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2160
2161    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2162        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2163
2164    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2165        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2166        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2168        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2169        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2170
2171    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2172        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2173        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2174
2175    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2176        args = []
2177        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2178            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2179                for value in arg_value:
2180                    args.append(value)
2181            else:
2182                args.append(arg_value)
2183
2184        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2185
2186    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2187        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2188
2189    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2190        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2191        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2192            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2193        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2194
2195    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2196        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2197
2198    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2199        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2200
2201    def expressions(
2202        self,
2203        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2204        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2205        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2206        flat: bool = False,
2207        indent: bool = True,
2208        sep: str = ", ",
2209        prefix: str = "",
2210    ) -> str:
2211        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2212
2213        if not expressions:
2214            return ""
2215
2216        if flat:
2217            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2218
2219        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2220
2221        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2222        pad = " " * self.pad
2223        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2224
2225        result_sqls = []
2226        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2227            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2228            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2229
2230            if self.pretty:
2231                if self._leading_comma:
2232                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2233                else:
2234                    result_sqls.append(
2235                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2236                    )
2237            else:
2238                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2239
2240        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2241        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2242
2243    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2244        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2245        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2246        if flat:
2247            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2248        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2249
2250    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2251        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2252        if not property_name:
2253            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2254        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2255
2256    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2258        op = self.seg(op)
2259        return self.query_modifiers(
2260            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2261        )
2262
2263    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2264        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2265
2266    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2267        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2268
2269    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2272        expressions = (
2273            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2274        )
2275        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2276
2277    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2280        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2281
2282    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2283        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2284
2285    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2286        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2287        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2288        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2289        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2290
2291        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2292        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2293            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2294            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2295                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2296        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2297            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2298                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2299            else:
2300                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2301        else:
2302            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2303        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2304
2305    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2308        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2309        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2310
2311    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2312        if expression.args.get("format"):
2313            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2314
2315        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2316
2317
2318def cached_generator(
2319    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2320) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2321    """Returns a cached generator."""
2322    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2323    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2324    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  22            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  23        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  24        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  25        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  27        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  29        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  35        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  36        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  37        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  38        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  39        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  40        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  41        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  42        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  43            Default: "upper"
  44        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  45            Default: False
  46        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  47            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  49            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  50            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  51        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  52            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  53            Default: 3
  54        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  55            Default: False
  56        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  57            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  58            line length.
  59            Default: 80
  60        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  61            Default: True
  62    """
  63
  64    TRANSFORMS = {
  65        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  66            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  67        ),
  68        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  69            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  70        ),
  71        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  72        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  78        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  79        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  80        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  87        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  88        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  89        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  91        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  95        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  98        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103    }
 104
 105    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 106    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 109    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 110
 111    # Always do union distinct or union all
 112    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 113
 114    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 115    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 118    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 121    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 124    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 127    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 130    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 133    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 136    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 137
 138    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 139    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 140
 141    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 142    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 143
 144    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 145        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 146        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 147        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 152    }
 153
 154    STAR_MAPPING = {
 155        "except": "EXCEPT",
 156        "replace": "REPLACE",
 157    }
 158
 159    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 160        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 161        "seconds": "second",
 162        "minutes": "minute",
 163        "hours": "hour",
 164        "days": "day",
 165        "weeks": "week",
 166        "months": "month",
 167        "quarters": "quarter",
 168        "years": "year",
 169    }
 170
 171    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 172
 173    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 174
 175    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 176
 177    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 178        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 179        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 180        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 181        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 182        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 183        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 184        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 187        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 192        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 194        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 195        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 196        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 197        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 201        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 203        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 205        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 206        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 208        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 210        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 221        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 223        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 226        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 227        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228    }
 229
 230    JOIN_HINTS = True
 231    TABLE_HINTS = True
 232
 233    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 234    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 235    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 236
 237    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 238
 239    __slots__ = (
 240        "time_mapping",
 241        "time_trie",
 242        "pretty",
 243        "quote_start",
 244        "quote_end",
 245        "identifier_start",
 246        "identifier_end",
 247        "bit_start",
 248        "bit_end",
 249        "hex_start",
 250        "hex_end",
 251        "byte_start",
 252        "byte_end",
 253        "identify",
 254        "normalize",
 255        "string_escape",
 256        "identifier_escape",
 257        "pad",
 258        "index_offset",
 259        "unnest_column_only",
 260        "alias_post_tablesample",
 261        "normalize_functions",
 262        "unsupported_level",
 263        "unsupported_messages",
 264        "null_ordering",
 265        "max_unsupported",
 266        "_indent",
 267        "_escaped_quote_end",
 268        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 269        "_leading_comma",
 270        "_max_text_width",
 271        "_comments",
 272        "_cache",
 273    )
 274
 275    def __init__(
 276        self,
 277        time_mapping=None,
 278        time_trie=None,
 279        pretty=None,
 280        quote_start=None,
 281        quote_end=None,
 282        identifier_start=None,
 283        identifier_end=None,
 284        bit_start=None,
 285        bit_end=None,
 286        hex_start=None,
 287        hex_end=None,
 288        byte_start=None,
 289        byte_end=None,
 290        identify=False,
 291        normalize=False,
 292        string_escape=None,
 293        identifier_escape=None,
 294        pad=2,
 295        indent=2,
 296        index_offset=0,
 297        unnest_column_only=False,
 298        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 299        normalize_functions="upper",
 300        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 301        null_ordering=None,
 302        max_unsupported=3,
 303        leading_comma=False,
 304        max_text_width=80,
 305        comments=True,
 306    ):
 307        import sqlglot
 308
 309        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 310        self.time_trie = time_trie
 311        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 312        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 313        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 314        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 315        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 316        self.bit_start = bit_start
 317        self.bit_end = bit_end
 318        self.hex_start = hex_start
 319        self.hex_end = hex_end
 320        self.byte_start = byte_start
 321        self.byte_end = byte_end
 322        self.identify = identify
 323        self.normalize = normalize
 324        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 325        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 326        self.pad = pad
 327        self.index_offset = index_offset
 328        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 329        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 330        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 332        self.unsupported_messages = []
 333        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 334        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 335        self._indent = indent
 336        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 337        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 338        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 339        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 340        self._comments = comments
 341        self._cache = None
 342
 343    def generate(
 344        self,
 345        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 346        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 347    ) -> str:
 348        """
 349        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 350
 351        Args
 352            expression: the syntax tree.
 353            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 354
 355        Returns
 356            the SQL string.
 357        """
 358        if cache is not None:
 359            self._cache = cache
 360        self.unsupported_messages = []
 361        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 362        self._cache = None
 363
 364        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 365            return sql
 366
 367        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 368            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 369                logger.warning(msg)
 370        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 371            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 372
 373        if self.pretty:
 374            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 375        return sql
 376
 377    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 378        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 379            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 380        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 381
 382    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 383        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 384
 385    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 386        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 387
 388    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 389        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 390        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 391        return comment
 392
 393    def maybe_comment(
 394        self,
 395        sql: str,
 396        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 397        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 398    ) -> str:
 399        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 400
 401        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 402            return sql
 403
 404        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 405        comments_sql = sep.join(
 406            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 407        )
 408
 409        if not comments_sql:
 410            return sql
 411
 412        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 413            return (
 414                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 415                if sql[0].isspace()
 416                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 417            )
 418
 419        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 420
 421    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 422        this_sql = self.indent(
 423            self.sql(expression)
 424            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 425            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 426            level=1,
 427            pad=0,
 428        )
 429        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 430
 431    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 432        original = self.identify
 433        self.identify = False
 434        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 435        self.identify = original
 436        return result
 437
 438    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 439        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 440            return name.upper()
 441        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 442            return name.lower()
 443        return name
 444
 445    def indent(
 446        self,
 447        sql: str,
 448        level: int = 0,
 449        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 450        skip_first: bool = False,
 451        skip_last: bool = False,
 452    ) -> str:
 453        if not self.pretty:
 454            return sql
 455
 456        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 457        lines = sql.split("\n")
 458
 459        return "\n".join(
 460            line
 461            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 462            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 463            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 464        )
 465
 466    def sql(
 467        self,
 468        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 469        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 470        comment: bool = True,
 471    ) -> str:
 472        if not expression:
 473            return ""
 474
 475        if isinstance(expression, str):
 476            return expression
 477
 478        if key:
 479            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 480
 481        if self._cache is not None:
 482            expression_id = hash(expression)
 483
 484            if expression_id in self._cache:
 485                return self._cache[expression_id]
 486
 487        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 488
 489        if callable(transform):
 490            sql = transform(self, expression)
 491        elif transform:
 492            sql = transform
 493        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 494            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 495
 496            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 497                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 498            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 499                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 500            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 501                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 502            else:
 503                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 504        else:
 505            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 506
 507        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 508
 509        if self._cache is not None:
 510            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 511        return sql
 512
 513    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 514        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 515        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 516        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 517
 518    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 519        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 520        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 521        options = expression.args.get("options")
 522        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 523        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 524        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 525        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 526        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 527
 528    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 529        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 530            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 531        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 532        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 533
 534    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 535        return ".".join(
 536            self.sql(part)
 537            for part in (
 538                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 539                expression.args.get("db"),
 540                expression.args.get("table"),
 541                expression.args.get("this"),
 542            )
 543            if part
 544        )
 545
 546    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 548        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 549        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 550        return f"{position}{this}"
 551
 552    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 553        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 554        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 555        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 556        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 557        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 558        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 560        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 561
 562        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 563
 564    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 566        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 567        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 568
 569    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 570        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 571
 572    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 573        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 574            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 575        else:
 576            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577
 578        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 579
 580    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 581        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 582    ) -> str:
 583        this = ""
 584        if expression.this is not None:
 585            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 586            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 587
 588        start = expression.args.get("start")
 589        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 590        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 591        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 592        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 593        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 594        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 595        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 596        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 597        cycle_sql = ""
 598
 599        if cycle is not None:
 600            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 601            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 602
 603        sequence_opts = ""
 604        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 605            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 606            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 607
 608        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 609        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 610
 611        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 612
 613    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 614        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 615
 616    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 617        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 618        if desc is not None:
 619            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 620        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 621
 622    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 623        return "UNIQUE"
 624
 625    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 627        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 628        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 629        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 630        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 631            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 632        ):
 633            properties_exp.set(
 634                "properties",
 635                exp.Properties(
 636                    expressions=[
 637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 638                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 639                    ]
 640                ),
 641            )
 642        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 643            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 644            this_properties = self.properties(
 645                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 646                wrapped=False,
 647            )
 648            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 649            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 650            properties_sql = ""
 651        else:
 652            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 653            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 654        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 655        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 656        if expression_sql:
 657            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 658
 659            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 660                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 661                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 662                        exp.Properties(
 663                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 664                        ),
 665                        wrapped=False,
 666                    )
 667                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 668                else:
 669                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 670
 671        postindex_props_sql = ""
 672        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 673            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 674                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 675                wrapped=False,
 676                prefix=" ",
 677            )
 678
 679        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
 680        if indexes:
 681            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
 682            for index in indexes:
 683                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
 684                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
 685                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
 686                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
 687                ind_columns = (
 688                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
 689                    if index.args.get("columns")
 690                    else ""
 691                )
 692                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
 693
 694                if indexes_sql:
 695                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
 696                else:
 697                    indexes_sql.append(
 698                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
 699                        if index.args.get("primary")
 700                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
 701                    )
 702
 703            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
 704        else:
 705            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
 706
 707        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 708        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 709
 710        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 711        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 712            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 713                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 714                sep=" ",
 715                prefix=" ",
 716                wrapped=False,
 717            )
 718
 719        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 720
 721        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 722        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 723            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 724                exp.Properties(
 725                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 726                ),
 727                sep=" ",
 728                prefix=" ",
 729                wrapped=False,
 730            )
 731
 732        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 733        no_schema_binding = (
 734            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 735        )
 736
 737        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 738        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 739
 740        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 741        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 742
 743    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 745        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 746
 747        if when:
 748            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 749            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 750            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 751
 752        return f"CLONE {this}"
 753
 754    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 755        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 756
 757    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 758        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 759        if with_:
 760            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 761        return sql
 762
 763    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 764        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 765        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 766
 767        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 768
 769    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 770        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 771        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 772
 773    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 774        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 775        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 776        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 777        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 778
 779    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        if self.bit_start:
 782            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 783        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 784
 785    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 787        if self.hex_start:
 788            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 789        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 790
 791    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 793        if self.byte_start:
 794            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 795        return this
 796
 797    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 800        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 801        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 802
 803    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 804        type_value = expression.this
 805        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 806        nested = ""
 807        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 808        values = ""
 809        if interior:
 810            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 811                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 812                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 813                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 814                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
 815            else:
 816                nested = f"({interior})"
 817
 818        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 819
 820    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 821        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 822        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 823        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 824        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 825
 826    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 829        using_sql = (
 830            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 831            if expression.args.get("using")
 832            else ""
 833        )
 834        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 836        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 838
 839    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 842        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 843        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 844        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 845        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 846        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 847        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 848        return (
 849            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 850        )
 851
 852    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 853        return self.prepend_ctes(
 854            expression,
 855            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 856        )
 857
 858    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 859        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 860
 861    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 862        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 863        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 864        count = expression.args.get("count")
 865        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 866        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 867            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 868        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 869        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 870
 871    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 874        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 875
 876    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 877        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 878            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 879        return ""
 880
 881    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 883        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 884        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
 885        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
 886
 887    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 888        text = expression.name
 889        lower = text.lower()
 890        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 891        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 892        if (
 893            expression.quoted
 894            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 895            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 896        ):
 897            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 898        return text
 899
 900    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 901        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 902        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 903        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 904        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 905        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 906
 907    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
 908        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 909
 910    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 911        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 912
 913    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 914        root_properties = []
 915        with_properties = []
 916
 917        for p in expression.expressions:
 918            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 919            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 920                with_properties.append(p)
 921            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 922                root_properties.append(p)
 923
 924        return self.root_properties(
 925            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 926        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 927
 928    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 929        if properties.expressions:
 930            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 931        return ""
 932
 933    def properties(
 934        self,
 935        properties: exp.Properties,
 936        prefix: str = "",
 937        sep: str = ", ",
 938        suffix: str = "",
 939        wrapped: bool = True,
 940    ) -> str:
 941        if properties.expressions:
 942            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 943            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 944            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 945        return ""
 946
 947    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 948        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 949
 950    def locate_properties(
 951        self, properties: exp.Properties
 952    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 953        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 954            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 955        }
 956
 957        for p in properties.expressions:
 958            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 959            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 960                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 961            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 974                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 975
 976        return properties_locs
 977
 978    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 979        property_cls = expression.__class__
 980        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 981            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 982
 983        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 984        if not property_name:
 985            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 986
 987        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 988
 989    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 990        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 991        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 992        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 993
 994    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 995        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 996        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 997        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 998
 999    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1000        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1001        local = expression.args.get("local")
1002        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1003        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1004        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1005        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1006        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1007
1008    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1009        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1011        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1012
1013    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1014        if expression.args.get("default"):
1015            property = "DEFAULT"
1016        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1017            property = "ON"
1018        else:
1019            property = "OFF"
1020        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1021
1022    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1023        if expression.args.get("no"):
1024            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1025        if expression.args.get("default"):
1026            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027
1028        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1029        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1030
1031    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1032        default = expression.args.get("default")
1033        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1034        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1035        if default or minimum or maximum:
1036            if default:
1037                prop = "DEFAULT"
1038            elif minimum:
1039                prop = "MINIMUM"
1040            else:
1041                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1042            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1043        units = expression.args.get("units")
1044        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1045        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1046
1047    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1048        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1049        always = expression.args.get("always")
1050        default = expression.args.get("default")
1051        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1052        never = expression.args.get("never")
1053
1054        if autotemp is not None:
1055            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1056        elif always:
1057            prop = "ALWAYS"
1058        elif default:
1059            prop = "DEFAULT"
1060        elif manual:
1061            prop = "MANUAL"
1062        elif never:
1063            prop = "NEVER"
1064        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1065
1066    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1067        no = expression.args.get("no")
1068        no = " NO" if no else ""
1069        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1070        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1071
1072        for_ = ""
1073        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1074            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1075        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1076            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1078            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1079        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1080
1081    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1082        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1083        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1084        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1085        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1086        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1087        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1088
1089    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1090        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1091        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1092        statistics_sql = ""
1093        if statistics is not None:
1094            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1095        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1096
1097    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1098        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1099
1100        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1101            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1102        else:
1103            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1104
1105        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1106        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1107        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1108
1109        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1110        partition_sql = (
1111            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1112        )
1113        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1114        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1115        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1116        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1117        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1118        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1119
1120    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(
1122            expression,
1123            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1124        )
1125
1126    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1128
1129    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1130        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1131
1132    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1133        return expression.name.upper()
1134
1135    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1136        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1137        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1138        if constraint:
1139            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1140        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1141        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1142        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1143        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        if expressions:
1145            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1146        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1147
1148    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1149        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1150
1151    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1152        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1153        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1154        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1155        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1156        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1157        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1158        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1159        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1160        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1161        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1162        null = expression.args.get("null")
1163        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1164        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1165
1166    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1167        table = ".".join(
1168            part
1169            for part in [
1170                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1171                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1172                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1173            ]
1174            if part
1175        )
1176
1177        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1178        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1179        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1180        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1181        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1182        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1183        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1184        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1185        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1186        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1187
1188        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1189
1190    def tablesample_sql(
1191        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1192    ) -> str:
1193        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1194            table = expression.this.copy()
1195            table.set("alias", None)
1196            this = self.sql(table)
1197            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1198        else:
1199            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200            alias = ""
1201        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1202        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1203        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1204        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1205        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1206        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1207        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1208        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1209        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1210        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1211        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1212        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1213        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1214            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1215        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1216        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1217        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1218        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1219
1220    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1221        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1222        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1223        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1224        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1227        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1228
1229    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1230        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1231
1232    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1235        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1236        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1239        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1240
1241    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1242        args = self.expressions(expression)
1243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1244        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1245        values = (
1246            f"({values})"
1247            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1248            else values
1249        )
1250        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1251
1252    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1253        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1254
1255    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1256        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1257        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1258        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1259
1260    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1261        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1262
1263    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1264        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1265        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1266        grouping_sets = (
1267            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1268        )
1269
1270        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1271        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1272            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1273        else:
1274            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1275            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1276
1277        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1278        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1279            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1280        else:
1281            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1282            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1283
1284        groupings = csv(
1285            grouping_sets,
1286            cube_sql,
1287            rollup_sql,
1288            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1289            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1290        )
1291
1292        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1293            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1294
1295        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1296
1297    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1298        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1299        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1300
1301    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1302        op_sql = " ".join(
1303            op
1304            for op in (
1305                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1306                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1307                expression.side,
1308                expression.kind,
1309                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1310            )
1311            if op
1312        )
1313        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1314        using = expression.args.get("using")
1315
1316        if not on_sql and using:
1317            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1318
1319        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320
1321        if on_sql:
1322            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1323            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1324            if using:
1325                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1326            else:
1327                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1328        elif not op_sql:
1329            return f", {this_sql}"
1330
1331        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1332        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1333
1334    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1335        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1336        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1337        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1338
1339    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1343            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1344
1345        if expression.args.get("view"):
1346            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1347            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1348            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1349            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1350            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1351            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1352
1353        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1354        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1355        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1356
1357    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1359        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1360
1361    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1364
1365    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1366        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1367        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1370        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1371        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1372        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1373        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1374
1375    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1376        expressions = (
1377            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1378        )
1379        return f"SET{expressions}"
1380
1381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1385        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1386            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1387            return ""
1388
1389        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1391        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1392        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1393
1394        if wait is not None:
1395            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1396                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1397            else:
1398                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1399
1400        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1401
1402    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1403        text = expression.this or ""
1404        if expression.is_string:
1405            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1406            if self.pretty:
1407                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1408            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1409        return text
1410
1411    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1412        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1413        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1414        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1415        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1416        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1417        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1418        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1419        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1420        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1421        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1422        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1423
1424    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1425        return "NULL"
1426
1427    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1428        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1429
1430    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1433        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1434
1435    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1436        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1437
1438    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1439        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1440
1441    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1442        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1443
1444    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1445        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1446        asc = not desc
1447
1448        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1449        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1450        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1451        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1452        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1453
1454        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1455        nulls_sort_change = ""
1456        if nulls_first and (
1457            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1458        ):
1459            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1460        elif (
1461            nulls_last
1462            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1463            and not nulls_are_last
1464        ):
1465            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1466
1467        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1468            self.unsupported(
1469                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1470            )
1471            nulls_sort_change = ""
1472
1473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1474
1475    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1476        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1477        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1478        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1479        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1480        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1481        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1482        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1483        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1484        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1485        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1486        definition_sqls = [
1487            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1488            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1489        ]
1490        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1491        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1492        body = "".join(
1493            (
1494                partition,
1495                order,
1496                measures,
1497                rows,
1498                after,
1499                pattern,
1500                define,
1501            )
1502        )
1503        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1504        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1505        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1506
1507    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1508        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1509
1510        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1511            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1512        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1513            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1514
1515        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1516
1517        return csv(
1518            *sqls,
1519            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1520            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1521            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1522            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1524            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1525            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1526            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1527            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1528            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1529            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1530            sep="",
1531        )
1532
1533    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1534        return [
1535            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1536            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1537            if expression.args.get("windows")
1538            else "",
1539        ]
1540
1541    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1542        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1543        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1544        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1545
1546    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1547        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1548        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1549        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1550        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1551        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1552        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1553        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1554        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1555            expression,
1556            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1557            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1558            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1559        )
1560        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1561
1562    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1565        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1566        return f"{this}{sql}"
1567
1568    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1569        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1570        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1571        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1572        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1573        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1574
1575    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1578        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1579
1580    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        kind = expression.text("kind")
1583        if kind:
1584            kind = f"{kind}."
1585        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1586
1587    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1588        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1589
1590    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1591        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1592        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1593
1594        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1595        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1596
1597        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1598        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1599
1600    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1601        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1602        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1603
1604    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1605        return self.prepend_ctes(
1606            expression,
1607            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1608        )
1609
1610    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1611        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1612        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1613        return f"UNION{kind}"
1614
1615    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1616        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1617        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1618        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1619            columns = alias.columns
1620            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1621        else:
1622            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1623        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1624        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1625        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1626        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1627        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1628
1629    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1630        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1631        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1632
1633    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1635
1636        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1637
1638        order = expression.args.get("order")
1639        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1640
1641        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1642
1643        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1644        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1645
1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1647        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1648        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1649
1650        first = expression.args.get("first")
1651        if first is not None:
1652            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1653        first = first or ""
1654
1655        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1656            return f"{this} {alias}"
1657
1658        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1659
1660        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1661
1662    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1663        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1664        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1665
1666    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1668        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1669        end = (
1670            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1671            or "CURRENT ROW"
1672        )
1673        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1674
1675    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1678        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1679
1680    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1682        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1683        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1684        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1685
1686    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1687        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1688        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1689
1690        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1691
1692    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1693        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1694
1695    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1697        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1698            this = self.wrap(this)
1699        return f"ANY {this}"
1700
1701    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1702        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1703
1704    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1707
1708        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1709            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1710            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1711
1712        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1713
1714        if default:
1715            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1716
1717        statements.append("END")
1718
1719        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1720            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1721
1722        return " ".join(statements)
1723
1724    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1727        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1728
1729    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1730        order = expression.args.get("order")
1731        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1732        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1733
1734    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1737        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1738
1739    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1740        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1741
1742        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1743            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1744        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1745            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1746        else:
1747            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1748
1749    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1750        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1751            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1752        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1753
1754    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1755        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1756        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1757
1758    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1760        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1761        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1762        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1763        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1764        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1765        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1766        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1767
1768    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1770        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1771        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1772        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1773
1774    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1775        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1776        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
1777
1778    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1779        return self.case_sql(
1780            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1781        )
1782
1783    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1784        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1785        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1786        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1787
1788    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1790
1791    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1792        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1793        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1794        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1795        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1796        if unique_keys is not None:
1797            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1798        else:
1799            unique_keys = ""
1800        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1801        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1802        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1803        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1804        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1805        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1806
1807    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1810        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1811        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1812        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1813        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1814
1815    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1818        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1819        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1820        with_ = (
1821            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1822            if expressions
1823            else ""
1824        )
1825        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1826
1827    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1828        query = expression.args.get("query")
1829        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1830        field = expression.args.get("field")
1831        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1832
1833        if query:
1834            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1835        elif unnest:
1836            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1837        elif field:
1838            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1839        else:
1840            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1841
1842        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1843
1844    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1845        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1846
1847    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1848        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1849        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1850            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1851        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1852
1853        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1854            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1855            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1856
1857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1858        if this:
1859            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1860            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1861
1862        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1863
1864    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1865        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1866
1867    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1870        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1871        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1872        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1873        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1874
1875    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1876        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1877
1878    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1879        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1880            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1881        else:
1882            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1883            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1884
1885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1886
1887    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1888        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1889        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1890        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1891        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1892
1893    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1894        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1895
1896    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1897        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1898        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1900
1901    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1903
1904    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1906        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1907        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1908
1909    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1910        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1911
1912    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1913        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1914
1915    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1916        if not self.pretty:
1917            return self.binary(expression, op)
1918
1919        sqls = tuple(
1920            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1921            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1922        )
1923
1924        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1925        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1926
1927    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1928        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1929
1930    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1931        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1932
1933    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1934        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1935
1936    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1937        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1938
1939    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1940        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1941
1942    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1943        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1944
1945    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1946        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1947
1948    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1949        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1951
1952    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1954
1955    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1956        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1957
1958    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1961        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1962        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1963        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1964
1965    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1967        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1968        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1969        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1970        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1971        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1972        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1973        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1974        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1975
1976    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1977        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1978        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1979        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1980        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1981
1982        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1983            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1984
1985        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1986
1987    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1988        return "BEGIN"
1989
1990    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1991        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1992        if chain is not None:
1993            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1994
1995        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1996
1997    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1998        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1999        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2000        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2001
2002    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004
2005        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2006        if dtype:
2007            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2008            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2009            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2010            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2011            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2012
2013        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2014        if default:
2015            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2016
2017        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2018            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2019
2020        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2021
2022    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2023        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2024            # Remove db from tables
2025            expression = expression.transform(
2026                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2027            )
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2030
2031    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2032        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2033
2034        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2035            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2036        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2037            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2038        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2039            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2040        else:
2041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2042
2043        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2044        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2045
2046    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2047        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2048        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2049        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2050
2051    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2053        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2054        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2055
2056        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2057        if enforced is not None:
2058            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2059
2060        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2061
2062    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2063        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2064        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2065
2066        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2067        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2068        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2069
2070    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2072
2073    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2075
2076    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2077        return self.sql(
2078            exp.Cast(
2079                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2080                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2081            )
2082        )
2083
2084    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2085        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2086
2087    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2088        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2089
2090    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2091        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2092
2093    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2095
2096    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2097        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2098
2099    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2101
2102    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2104
2105    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2107
2108    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2110
2111    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2113
2114    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2116
2117    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2119
2120    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2122
2123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2125
2126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2128
2129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2131
2132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2134
2135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2137
2138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2140
2141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2142        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2143
2144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2146
2147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2149
2150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2152
2153    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2154        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2155
2156    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2158
2159    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2160        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2161
2162    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2163        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2164
2165    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2166        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2167        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2170        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2171
2172    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2173        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2174        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2175
2176    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2177        args = []
2178        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2179            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2180                for value in arg_value:
2181                    args.append(value)
2182            else:
2183                args.append(arg_value)
2184
2185        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2186
2187    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2188        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2189
2190    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2191        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2192        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2193            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2194        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2195
2196    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2197        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2198
2199    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2200        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2201
2202    def expressions(
2203        self,
2204        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2205        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2206        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2207        flat: bool = False,
2208        indent: bool = True,
2209        sep: str = ", ",
2210        prefix: str = "",
2211    ) -> str:
2212        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2213
2214        if not expressions:
2215            return ""
2216
2217        if flat:
2218            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2219
2220        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2221
2222        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2223        pad = " " * self.pad
2224        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2225
2226        result_sqls = []
2227        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2228            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2229            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2230
2231            if self.pretty:
2232                if self._leading_comma:
2233                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2234                else:
2235                    result_sqls.append(
2236                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2237                    )
2238            else:
2239                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2240
2241        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2242        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2243
2244    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2245        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2246        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2247        if flat:
2248            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2249        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2250
2251    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2252        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2253        if not property_name:
2254            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2255        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2256
2257    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        op = self.seg(op)
2260        return self.query_modifiers(
2261            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2262        )
2263
2264    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2265        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2266
2267    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2268        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2269
2270    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2273        expressions = (
2274            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2275        )
2276        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2277
2278    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2281        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2282
2283    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2284        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2285
2286    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2287        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2288        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2289        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2290        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2291
2292        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2293        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2294            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2295            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2296                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2297        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2298            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2299                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2300            else:
2301                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2302        else:
2303            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2304        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2305
2306    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2309        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2310        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2311
2312    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2313        if expression.args.get("format"):
2314            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2315
2316        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))

Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.

Arguments:
  • time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  • time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  • pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  • quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  • normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  • string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  • identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  • pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  • unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  • normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None Default: "upper"
  • alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample Default: False
  • unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set. Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last". Default: "nulls_are_small"
  • max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( time_mapping=None, time_trie=None, pretty=None, quote_start=None, quote_end=None, identifier_start=None, identifier_end=None, bit_start=None, bit_end=None, hex_start=None, hex_end=None, byte_start=None, byte_end=None, identify=False, normalize=False, string_escape=None, identifier_escape=None, pad=2, indent=2, index_offset=0, unnest_column_only=False, alias_post_tablesample=False, normalize_functions='upper', unsupported_level=<ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, null_ordering=None, max_unsupported=3, leading_comma=False, max_text_width=80, comments=True)
275    def __init__(
276        self,
277        time_mapping=None,
278        time_trie=None,
279        pretty=None,
280        quote_start=None,
281        quote_end=None,
282        identifier_start=None,
283        identifier_end=None,
284        bit_start=None,
285        bit_end=None,
286        hex_start=None,
287        hex_end=None,
288        byte_start=None,
289        byte_end=None,
290        identify=False,
291        normalize=False,
292        string_escape=None,
293        identifier_escape=None,
294        pad=2,
295        indent=2,
296        index_offset=0,
297        unnest_column_only=False,
298        alias_post_tablesample=False,
299        normalize_functions="upper",
300        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
301        null_ordering=None,
302        max_unsupported=3,
303        leading_comma=False,
304        max_text_width=80,
305        comments=True,
306    ):
307        import sqlglot
308
309        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
310        self.time_trie = time_trie
311        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
312        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
313        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
314        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
315        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
316        self.bit_start = bit_start
317        self.bit_end = bit_end
318        self.hex_start = hex_start
319        self.hex_end = hex_end
320        self.byte_start = byte_start
321        self.byte_end = byte_end
322        self.identify = identify
323        self.normalize = normalize
324        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
325        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
326        self.pad = pad
327        self.index_offset = index_offset
328        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
329        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
330        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
332        self.unsupported_messages = []
333        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
334        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
335        self._indent = indent
336        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
337        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
338        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
339        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
340        self._comments = comments
341        self._cache = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
343    def generate(
344        self,
345        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
346        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
347    ) -> str:
348        """
349        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
350
351        Args
352            expression: the syntax tree.
353            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
354
355        Returns
356            the SQL string.
357        """
358        if cache is not None:
359            self._cache = cache
360        self.unsupported_messages = []
361        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
362        self._cache = None
363
364        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
365            return sql
366
367        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
368            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
369                logger.warning(msg)
370        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
371            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
372
373        if self.pretty:
374            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
375        return sql

Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.

Args expression: the syntax tree. cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.

Returns the SQL string.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
377    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
378        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
379            raise UnsupportedError(message)
380        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
382    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
383        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
385    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
386        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
388    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
389        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
390        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
391        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
393    def maybe_comment(
394        self,
395        sql: str,
396        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
397        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
398    ) -> str:
399        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
400
401        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
402            return sql
403
404        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
405        comments_sql = sep.join(
406            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
407        )
408
409        if not comments_sql:
410            return sql
411
412        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
413            return (
414                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
415                if sql[0].isspace()
416                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
417            )
418
419        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
421    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
422        this_sql = self.indent(
423            self.sql(expression)
424            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
425            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
426            level=1,
427            pad=0,
428        )
429        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
431    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
432        original = self.identify
433        self.identify = False
434        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
435        self.identify = original
436        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
438    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
439        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
440            return name.upper()
441        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
442            return name.lower()
443        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
445    def indent(
446        self,
447        sql: str,
448        level: int = 0,
449        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
450        skip_first: bool = False,
451        skip_last: bool = False,
452    ) -> str:
453        if not self.pretty:
454            return sql
455
456        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
457        lines = sql.split("\n")
458
459        return "\n".join(
460            line
461            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
462            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
463            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
464        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
466    def sql(
467        self,
468        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
469        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
470        comment: bool = True,
471    ) -> str:
472        if not expression:
473            return ""
474
475        if isinstance(expression, str):
476            return expression
477
478        if key:
479            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
480
481        if self._cache is not None:
482            expression_id = hash(expression)
483
484            if expression_id in self._cache:
485                return self._cache[expression_id]
486
487        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
488
489        if callable(transform):
490            sql = transform(self, expression)
491        elif transform:
492            sql = transform
493        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
494            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
495
496            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
497                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
498            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
499                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
500            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
501                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
502            else:
503                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
504        else:
505            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
506
507        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
508
509        if self._cache is not None:
510            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
511        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
513    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
514        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
515        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
516        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
518    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
519        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
520        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
521        options = expression.args.get("options")
522        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
523        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
524        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
525        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
526        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
528    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
529        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
530            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
531        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
532        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
534    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
535        return ".".join(
536            self.sql(part)
537            for part in (
538                expression.args.get("catalog"),
539                expression.args.get("db"),
540                expression.args.get("table"),
541                expression.args.get("this"),
542            )
543            if part
544        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
546    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
548        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
549        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
550        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
552    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
553        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
554        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
555        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
556        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
557        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
558        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
560        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
561
562        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
564    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
566        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
567        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
569    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
570        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
572    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
573        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
574            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
575        else:
576            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
577
578        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
580    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
581        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
582    ) -> str:
583        this = ""
584        if expression.this is not None:
585            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
586            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
587
588        start = expression.args.get("start")
589        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
590        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
591        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
592        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
593        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
594        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
595        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
596        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
597        cycle_sql = ""
598
599        if cycle is not None:
600            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
601            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
602
603        sequence_opts = ""
604        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
605            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
606            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
607
608        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
609        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
610
611        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
613    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
614        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
616    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
617        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
618        if desc is not None:
619            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
620        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
622    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
623        return "UNIQUE"
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
625    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
627        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
628        properties_exp = expression.copy()
629        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
630        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
631            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
632        ):
633            properties_exp.set(
634                "properties",
635                exp.Properties(
636                    expressions=[
637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
638                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
639                    ]
640                ),
641            )
642        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
643            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
644            this_properties = self.properties(
645                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
646                wrapped=False,
647            )
648            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
649            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
650            properties_sql = ""
651        else:
652            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
653            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
654        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
655        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
656        if expression_sql:
657            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
658
659            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
660                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
661                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
662                        exp.Properties(
663                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
664                        ),
665                        wrapped=False,
666                    )
667                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
668                else:
669                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
670
671        postindex_props_sql = ""
672        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
673            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
674                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
675                wrapped=False,
676                prefix=" ",
677            )
678
679        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
680        if indexes:
681            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
682            for index in indexes:
683                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
684                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
685                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
686                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
687                ind_columns = (
688                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
689                    if index.args.get("columns")
690                    else ""
691                )
692                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
693
694                if indexes_sql:
695                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
696                else:
697                    indexes_sql.append(
698                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
699                        if index.args.get("primary")
700                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
701                    )
702
703            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
704        else:
705            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
706
707        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
708        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
709
710        postcreate_props_sql = ""
711        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
712            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
713                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
714                sep=" ",
715                prefix=" ",
716                wrapped=False,
717            )
718
719        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
720
721        postexpression_props_sql = ""
722        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
723            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
724                exp.Properties(
725                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
726                ),
727                sep=" ",
728                prefix=" ",
729                wrapped=False,
730            )
731
732        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
733        no_schema_binding = (
734            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
735        )
736
737        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
738        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
739
740        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
741        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
743    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
745        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
746
747        if when:
748            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
749            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
750            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
751
752        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
754    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
755        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
757    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
758        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
759        if with_:
760            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
761        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
763    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
764        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
765        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
766
767        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
769    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
770        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
771        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
773    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
774        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
775        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
776        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
777        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
779    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
781        if self.bit_start:
782            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
783        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
785    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
787        if self.hex_start:
788            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
789        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
791    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
793        if self.byte_start:
794            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
795        return this
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
797    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
799        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
800        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
801        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
803    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
804        type_value = expression.this
805        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
806        nested = ""
807        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
808        values = ""
809        if interior:
810            if expression.args.get("nested"):
811                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
812                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
813                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
814                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
815            else:
816                nested = f"({interior})"
817
818        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
820    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
821        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
822        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
823        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
824        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
826    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
828        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
829        using_sql = (
830            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
831            if expression.args.get("using")
832            else ""
833        )
834        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
836        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
839    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
841        kind = expression.args["kind"]
842        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
843        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
844        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
845        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
846        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
847        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
848        return (
849            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
850        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
852    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
853        return self.prepend_ctes(
854            expression,
855            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
856        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
858    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
859        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
861    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
862        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
863        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
864        count = expression.args.get("count")
865        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
866        if expression.args.get("percent"):
867            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
868        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
869        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
871    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
873        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
874        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
876    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
877        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
878            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
879        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
881    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
883        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
884        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
885        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
887    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
888        text = expression.name
889        lower = text.lower()
890        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
891        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
892        if (
893            expression.quoted
894            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
895            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
896        ):
897            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
898        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
900    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
901        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
902        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
903        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
904        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
905        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National) -> str:
907    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
908        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
910    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
911        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
913    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
914        root_properties = []
915        with_properties = []
916
917        for p in expression.expressions:
918            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
919            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
920                with_properties.append(p)
921            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
922                root_properties.append(p)
923
924        return self.root_properties(
925            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
926        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
928    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
929        if properties.expressions:
930            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
931        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
933    def properties(
934        self,
935        properties: exp.Properties,
936        prefix: str = "",
937        sep: str = ", ",
938        suffix: str = "",
939        wrapped: bool = True,
940    ) -> str:
941        if properties.expressions:
942            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
943            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
944            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
945        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
947    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
948        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
950    def locate_properties(
951        self, properties: exp.Properties
952    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
953        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
954            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
955        }
956
957        for p in properties.expressions:
958            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
959            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
960                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
961            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
974                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
975
976        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
978    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
979        property_cls = expression.__class__
980        if property_cls == exp.Property:
981            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
982
983        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
984        if not property_name:
985            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
986
987        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
989    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
990        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
991        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
992        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
994    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
995        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
996        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
997        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
 999    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1000        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1001        local = expression.args.get("local")
1002        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1003        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1004        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1005        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1006        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1008    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1009        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1011        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1013    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1014        if expression.args.get("default"):
1015            property = "DEFAULT"
1016        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1017            property = "ON"
1018        else:
1019            property = "OFF"
1020        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1022    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1023        if expression.args.get("no"):
1024            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1025        if expression.args.get("default"):
1026            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027
1028        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1029        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1031    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1032        default = expression.args.get("default")
1033        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1034        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1035        if default or minimum or maximum:
1036            if default:
1037                prop = "DEFAULT"
1038            elif minimum:
1039                prop = "MINIMUM"
1040            else:
1041                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1042            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1043        units = expression.args.get("units")
1044        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1045        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1047    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1048        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1049        always = expression.args.get("always")
1050        default = expression.args.get("default")
1051        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1052        never = expression.args.get("never")
1053
1054        if autotemp is not None:
1055            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1056        elif always:
1057            prop = "ALWAYS"
1058        elif default:
1059            prop = "DEFAULT"
1060        elif manual:
1061            prop = "MANUAL"
1062        elif never:
1063            prop = "NEVER"
1064        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1066    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1067        no = expression.args.get("no")
1068        no = " NO" if no else ""
1069        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1070        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1071
1072        for_ = ""
1073        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1074            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1075        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1076            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1078            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1079        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1081    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1082        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1083        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1084        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1085        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1086        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1087        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1089    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1090        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1091        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1092        statistics_sql = ""
1093        if statistics is not None:
1094            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1095        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1097    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1098        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1099
1100        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1101            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1102        else:
1103            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1104
1105        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1106        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1107        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1108
1109        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1110        partition_sql = (
1111            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1112        )
1113        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1114        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1115        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1116        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1117        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1118        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1120    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(
1122            expression,
1123            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1124        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1126    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1129    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1130        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1132    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1133        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1135    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1136        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1137        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1138        if constraint:
1139            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1140        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1141        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1142        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1143        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        if expressions:
1145            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1146        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1148    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1149        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1151    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1152        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1153        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1154        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1155        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1156        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1157        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1158        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1159        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1160        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1161        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1162        null = expression.args.get("null")
1163        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1164        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1166    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1167        table = ".".join(
1168            part
1169            for part in [
1170                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1171                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1172                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1173            ]
1174            if part
1175        )
1176
1177        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1178        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1179        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1180        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1181        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1182        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1183        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1184        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1185        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1186        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1187
1188        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1190    def tablesample_sql(
1191        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1192    ) -> str:
1193        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1194            table = expression.this.copy()
1195            table.set("alias", None)
1196            this = self.sql(table)
1197            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1198        else:
1199            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200            alias = ""
1201        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1202        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1203        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1204        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1205        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1206        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1207        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1208        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1209        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1210        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1211        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1212        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1213        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1214            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1215        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1216        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1217        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1218        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1220    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1221        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1222        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1223        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1224        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1227        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1229    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1230        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1232    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1235        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1236        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1239        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1241    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1242        args = self.expressions(expression)
1243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1244        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1245        values = (
1246            f"({values})"
1247            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1248            else values
1249        )
1250        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1252    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1253        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1255    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1256        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1257        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1258        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1260    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1261        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1263    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1264        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1265        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1266        grouping_sets = (
1267            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1268        )
1269
1270        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1271        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1272            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1273        else:
1274            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1275            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1276
1277        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1278        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1279            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1280        else:
1281            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1282            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1283
1284        groupings = csv(
1285            grouping_sets,
1286            cube_sql,
1287            rollup_sql,
1288            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1289            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1290        )
1291
1292        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1293            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1294
1295        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1297    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1298        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1299        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1301    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1302        op_sql = " ".join(
1303            op
1304            for op in (
1305                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1306                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1307                expression.side,
1308                expression.kind,
1309                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1310            )
1311            if op
1312        )
1313        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1314        using = expression.args.get("using")
1315
1316        if not on_sql and using:
1317            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1318
1319        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320
1321        if on_sql:
1322            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1323            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1324            if using:
1325                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1326            else:
1327                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1328        elif not op_sql:
1329            return f", {this_sql}"
1330
1331        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1332        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1334    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1335        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1336        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1337        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1339    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1343            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1344
1345        if expression.args.get("view"):
1346            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1347            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1348            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1349            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1350            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1351            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1352
1353        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1354        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1355        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1357    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1359        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1361    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1365    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1366        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1367        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1370        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1371        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1372        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1373        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1375    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1376        expressions = (
1377            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1378        )
1379        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1385        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1386            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1387            return ""
1388
1389        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1391        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1392        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1393
1394        if wait is not None:
1395            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1396                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1397            else:
1398                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1399
1400        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1402    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1403        text = expression.this or ""
1404        if expression.is_string:
1405            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1406            if self.pretty:
1407                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1408            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1409        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1411    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1412        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1413        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1414        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1415        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1416        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1417        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1418        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1419        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1420        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1421        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1422        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1424    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1425        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1427    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1428        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1430    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1433        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1435    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1436        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1438    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1439        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1441    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1442        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1444    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1445        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1446        asc = not desc
1447
1448        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1449        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1450        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1451        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1452        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1453
1454        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1455        nulls_sort_change = ""
1456        if nulls_first and (
1457            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1458        ):
1459            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1460        elif (
1461            nulls_last
1462            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1463            and not nulls_are_last
1464        ):
1465            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1466
1467        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1468            self.unsupported(
1469                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1470            )
1471            nulls_sort_change = ""
1472
1473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1475    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1476        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1477        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1478        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1479        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1480        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1481        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1482        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1483        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1484        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1485        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1486        definition_sqls = [
1487            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1488            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1489        ]
1490        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1491        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1492        body = "".join(
1493            (
1494                partition,
1495                order,
1496                measures,
1497                rows,
1498                after,
1499                pattern,
1500                define,
1501            )
1502        )
1503        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1504        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1505        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1507    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1508        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1509
1510        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1511            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1512        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1513            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1514
1515        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1516
1517        return csv(
1518            *sqls,
1519            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1520            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1521            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1522            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1524            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1525            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1526            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1527            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1528            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1529            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1530            sep="",
1531        )
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1533    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1534        return [
1535            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1536            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1537            if expression.args.get("windows")
1538            else "",
1539        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1541    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1542        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1543        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1544        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1546    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1547        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1548        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1549        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1550        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1551        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1552        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1553        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1554        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1555            expression,
1556            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1557            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1558            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1559        )
1560        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1562    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1565        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1566        return f"{this}{sql}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1568    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1569        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1570        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1571        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1572        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1573        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1575    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1578        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1580    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        kind = expression.text("kind")
1583        if kind:
1584            kind = f"{kind}."
1585        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1587    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1588        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1590    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1591        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1592        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1593
1594        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1595        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1596
1597        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1598        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1600    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1601        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1602        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1604    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1605        return self.prepend_ctes(
1606            expression,
1607            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1608        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1610    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1611        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1612        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1613        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1615    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1616        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1617        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1618        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1619            columns = alias.columns
1620            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1621        else:
1622            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1623        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1624        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1625        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1626        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1627        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1629    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1630        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1631        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1633    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1635
1636        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1637
1638        order = expression.args.get("order")
1639        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1640
1641        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1642
1643        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1644        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1645
1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1647        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1648        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1649
1650        first = expression.args.get("first")
1651        if first is not None:
1652            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1653        first = first or ""
1654
1655        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1656            return f"{this} {alias}"
1657
1658        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1659
1660        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1662    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1663        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1664        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1666    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1668        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1669        end = (
1670            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1671            or "CURRENT ROW"
1672        )
1673        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1675    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1678        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1680    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1682        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1683        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1684        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1686    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1687        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1688        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1689
1690        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1692    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1693        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1695    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1697        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1698            this = self.wrap(this)
1699        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1701    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1702        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1704    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1707
1708        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1709            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1710            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1711
1712        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1713
1714        if default:
1715            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1716
1717        statements.append("END")
1718
1719        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1720            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1721
1722        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1724    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1727        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1729    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1730        order = expression.args.get("order")
1731        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1732        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1734    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1737        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1739    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1740        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1741
1742        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1743            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1744        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1745            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1746        else:
1747            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
1749    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1750        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1751            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1752        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1754    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1755        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1756        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1758    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1760        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1761        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1762        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1763        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1764        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1765        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1766        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1768    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1770        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1771        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1772        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def unique_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unique) -> str:
1774    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1775        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1776        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1778    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1779        return self.case_sql(
1780            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1781        )
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1783    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1784        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1785        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1786        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1788    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1791    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1792        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1793        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1794        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1795        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1796        if unique_keys is not None:
1797            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1798        else:
1799            unique_keys = ""
1800        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1801        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1802        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1803        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1804        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1805        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1807    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1810        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1811        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1812        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1813        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1815    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1818        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1819        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1820        with_ = (
1821            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1822            if expressions
1823            else ""
1824        )
1825        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1827    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1828        query = expression.args.get("query")
1829        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1830        field = expression.args.get("field")
1831        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1832
1833        if query:
1834            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1835        elif unnest:
1836            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1837        elif field:
1838            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1839        else:
1840            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1841
1842        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1844    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1845        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1847    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1848        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1849        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1850            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1851        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1852
1853        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1854            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1855            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1856
1857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1858        if this:
1859            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1860            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1861
1862        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1864    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1865        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1867    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1870        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1871        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1872        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1873        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1875    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1876        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1878    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1879        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1880            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1881        else:
1882            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1883            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1884
1885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1887    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1888        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1889        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1890        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1891        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1893    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1894        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1896    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1897        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1898        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1901    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1904    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1906        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1907        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1909    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1910        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1912    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1913        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1915    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1916        if not self.pretty:
1917            return self.binary(expression, op)
1918
1919        sqls = tuple(
1920            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1921            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1922        )
1923
1924        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1925        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1927    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1928        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1930    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1931        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1933    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1934        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1936    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1937        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1939    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1940        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1942    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1943        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1945    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1946        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1948    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1949        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1952    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1955    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1956        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1958    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1961        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1962        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1963        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1965    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1967        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1968        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1969        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1970        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1971        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1972        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1973        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1974        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1976    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1977        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1978        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1979        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1980        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1981
1982        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1983            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1984
1985        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1987    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1988        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
1990    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1991        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1992        if chain is not None:
1993            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1994
1995        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
1997    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1998        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1999        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2000        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2002    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004
2005        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2006        if dtype:
2007            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2008            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2009            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2010            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2011            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2012
2013        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2014        if default:
2015            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2016
2017        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2018            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2019
2020        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2022    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2023        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2024            # Remove db from tables
2025            expression = expression.transform(
2026                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2027            )
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2031    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2032        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2033
2034        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2035            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2036        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2037            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2038        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2039            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2040        else:
2041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2042
2043        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2044        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2046    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2047        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2048        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2049        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2051    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2053        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2054        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2055
2056        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2057        if enforced is not None:
2058            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2059
2060        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2062    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2063        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2064        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2065
2066        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2067        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2068        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2070    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2073    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2076    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2077        return self.sql(
2078            exp.Cast(
2079                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2080                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2081            )
2082        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2084    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2085        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2087    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2088        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2090    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2091        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2093    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2096    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2097        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2099    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2102    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2105    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2108    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2111    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2114    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2117    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2120    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2142        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2153    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2154        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2156    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2159    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2160        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2162    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2163        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2165    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2166        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2167        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2170        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2172    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2173        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2174        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2176    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2177        args = []
2178        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2179            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2180                for value in arg_value:
2181                    args.append(value)
2182            else:
2183                args.append(arg_value)
2184
2185        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2187    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2188        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2190    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2191        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2192        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2193            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2194        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2196    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2197        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2199    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2200        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2202    def expressions(
2203        self,
2204        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2205        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2206        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2207        flat: bool = False,
2208        indent: bool = True,
2209        sep: str = ", ",
2210        prefix: str = "",
2211    ) -> str:
2212        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2213
2214        if not expressions:
2215            return ""
2216
2217        if flat:
2218            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2219
2220        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2221
2222        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2223        pad = " " * self.pad
2224        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2225
2226        result_sqls = []
2227        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2228            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2229            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2230
2231            if self.pretty:
2232                if self._leading_comma:
2233                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2234                else:
2235                    result_sqls.append(
2236                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2237                    )
2238            else:
2239                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2240
2241        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2242        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2244    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2245        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2246        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2247        if flat:
2248            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2249        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2251    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2252        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2253        if not property_name:
2254            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2255        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2257    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        op = self.seg(op)
2260        return self.query_modifiers(
2261            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2262        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2264    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2265        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2267    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2268        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2270    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2273        expressions = (
2274            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2275        )
2276        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2278    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2281        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2283    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2284        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2286    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2287        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2288        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2289        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2290        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2291
2292        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2293        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2294            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2295            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2296                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2297        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2298            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2299                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2300            else:
2301                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2302        else:
2303            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2304        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2306    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2309        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2310        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2312    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2313        if expression.args.get("format"):
2314            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2315
2316        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2319def cached_generator(
2320    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2321) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2322    """Returns a cached generator."""
2323    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2324    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2325    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.