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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  15
  16
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether the base comes first
 105    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 108    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 111    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 112
 113    # Always do union distinct or union all
 114    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 115
 116    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 117    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 120    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 123    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 126    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 127
 128    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 129    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 132    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 135    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 136
 137    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 138    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 139
 140    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 141    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 142
 143    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 144    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 145
 146    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 147    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 148
 149    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 150    JOIN_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 153    TABLE_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 156    QUERY_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 159    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 160
 161    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 162    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 165    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 168    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 171    RETURNING_END = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 174    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 177    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 178
 179    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 180    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 181
 182    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 183    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 184
 185    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 186    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 187
 188    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 189    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 190    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 191    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 192
 193    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 194    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 195
 196    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 197    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 200    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 201
 202    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 203    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 206    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 209    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 212    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 215    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 218    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 219
 220    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 221    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 222
 223    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 224        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 225        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 226        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 227        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 228        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 229        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 230        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 231        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 232        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 233    }
 234
 235    STAR_MAPPING = {
 236        "except": "EXCEPT",
 237        "replace": "REPLACE",
 238    }
 239
 240    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 241        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 242        "seconds": "second",
 243        "minutes": "minute",
 244        "hours": "hour",
 245        "days": "day",
 246        "weeks": "week",
 247        "months": "month",
 248        "quarters": "quarter",
 249        "years": "year",
 250    }
 251
 252    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 253
 254    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 255
 256    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 257
 258    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 259        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 260        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 262        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 264        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 269        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 279        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 281        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 282        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 283        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 287        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 289        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 291        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 293        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 295        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 297        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 309        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 311        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 313        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 315        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 316        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317    }
 318
 319    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 320    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 321
 322    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 323    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 324        exp.Create,
 325        exp.Delete,
 326        exp.Drop,
 327        exp.From,
 328        exp.Insert,
 329        exp.Join,
 330        exp.Select,
 331        exp.Update,
 332        exp.Where,
 333        exp.With,
 334    )
 335
 336    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 337    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 338        exp.Column,
 339        exp.Literal,
 340        exp.Neg,
 341        exp.Paren,
 342    )
 343
 344    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 345
 346    # Autofilled
 347    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 348    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 349    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 350    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 351    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 352    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 353    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 354    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 355    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 356    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 357
 358    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 359
 360    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 361    QUOTE_START = "'"
 362    QUOTE_END = "'"
 363    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 364    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 365    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 366
 367    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 368    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 369    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 370    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 371    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 372    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 373    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 374
 375    __slots__ = (
 376        "pretty",
 377        "identify",
 378        "normalize",
 379        "pad",
 380        "_indent",
 381        "normalize_functions",
 382        "unsupported_level",
 383        "max_unsupported",
 384        "leading_comma",
 385        "max_text_width",
 386        "comments",
 387        "unsupported_messages",
 388        "_escaped_quote_end",
 389        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 390        "_cache",
 391    )
 392
 393    def __init__(
 394        self,
 395        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 396        identify: str | bool = False,
 397        normalize: bool = False,
 398        pad: int = 2,
 399        indent: int = 2,
 400        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 401        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 402        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 403        leading_comma: bool = False,
 404        max_text_width: int = 80,
 405        comments: bool = True,
 406    ):
 407        import sqlglot
 408
 409        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 410        self.identify = identify
 411        self.normalize = normalize
 412        self.pad = pad
 413        self._indent = indent
 414        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 415        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 416        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 417        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 418        self.comments = comments
 419
 420        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 421        self.normalize_functions = (
 422            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 423        )
 424
 425        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 426        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 427        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 428            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 429        )
 430        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 431
 432    def generate(
 433        self,
 434        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 435        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 436    ) -> str:
 437        """
 438        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 439
 440        Args:
 441            expression: The syntax tree.
 442            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 443                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 444
 445        Returns:
 446            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 447        """
 448        if cache is not None:
 449            self._cache = cache
 450
 451        self.unsupported_messages = []
 452        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 453        self._cache = None
 454
 455        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 456            return sql
 457
 458        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 459            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 460                logger.warning(msg)
 461        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 462            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 463
 464        if self.pretty:
 465            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 466        return sql
 467
 468    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 469        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 470            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 471        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 472
 473    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 474        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 475
 476    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 477        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 478
 479    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 480        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 481        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 482        return comment
 483
 484    def maybe_comment(
 485        self,
 486        sql: str,
 487        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 488        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 489    ) -> str:
 490        comments = (
 491            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 492            if self.comments
 493            else None
 494        )
 495
 496        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 497            return sql
 498
 499        comments_sql = " ".join(
 500            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 501        )
 502
 503        if not comments_sql:
 504            return sql
 505
 506        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 507            return (
 508                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 509                if sql[0].isspace()
 510                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 511            )
 512
 513        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 514
 515    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 516        this_sql = self.indent(
 517            self.sql(expression)
 518            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 519            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 520            level=1,
 521            pad=0,
 522        )
 523        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 524
 525    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 526        original = self.identify
 527        self.identify = False
 528        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 529        self.identify = original
 530        return result
 531
 532    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 533        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 534            return name.upper()
 535        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 536            return name.lower()
 537        return name
 538
 539    def indent(
 540        self,
 541        sql: str,
 542        level: int = 0,
 543        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 544        skip_first: bool = False,
 545        skip_last: bool = False,
 546    ) -> str:
 547        if not self.pretty:
 548            return sql
 549
 550        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 551        lines = sql.split("\n")
 552
 553        return "\n".join(
 554            line
 555            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 556            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 557            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 558        )
 559
 560    def sql(
 561        self,
 562        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 563        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 564        comment: bool = True,
 565    ) -> str:
 566        if not expression:
 567            return ""
 568
 569        if isinstance(expression, str):
 570            return expression
 571
 572        if key:
 573            value = expression.args.get(key)
 574            if value:
 575                return self.sql(value)
 576            return ""
 577
 578        if self._cache is not None:
 579            expression_id = hash(expression)
 580
 581            if expression_id in self._cache:
 582                return self._cache[expression_id]
 583
 584        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 585
 586        if callable(transform):
 587            sql = transform(self, expression)
 588        elif transform:
 589            sql = transform
 590        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 591            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 592
 593            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 594                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 595            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 596                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 597            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 598                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 599            else:
 600                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 601        else:
 602            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 603
 604        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 605
 606        if self._cache is not None:
 607            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 608        return sql
 609
 610    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 611        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 612        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 613        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 614
 615    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 616        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 617        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        options = expression.args.get("options")
 619        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 620        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 621        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 622        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 623        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 624
 625    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 626        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 627            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 628        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 629        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 630
 631    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 632        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 633
 634        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 635            join_mark = ""
 636            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 637
 638        column = ".".join(
 639            self.sql(part)
 640            for part in (
 641                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 642                expression.args.get("db"),
 643                expression.args.get("table"),
 644                expression.args.get("this"),
 645            )
 646            if part
 647        )
 648
 649        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 650
 651    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 653        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 654        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 655        return f"{position}{this}"
 656
 657    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 658        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 659        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 660        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 661        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 662        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 663        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 664        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 665        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 666
 667        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 668            kind = ""
 669
 670        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 671
 672    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 674        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 675        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 676
 677    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 679        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 680            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 681        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 682            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 683        else:
 684            persisted = ""
 685        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 686
 687    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 688        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 689
 690    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 691        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 692            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 693        else:
 694            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 695
 696        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 697
 698    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 699        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 700    ) -> str:
 701        this = ""
 702        if expression.this is not None:
 703            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 704            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 705
 706        start = expression.args.get("start")
 707        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 708        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 709        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 710        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 711        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 712        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 713        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 714        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 715        cycle_sql = ""
 716
 717        if cycle is not None:
 718            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 719            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 720
 721        sequence_opts = ""
 722        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 723            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 724            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 725
 726        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 727        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 728
 729        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 730
 731    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 732        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 733
 734    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 735        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 736        if desc is not None:
 737            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 738        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 739
 740    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 742        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 743        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 744        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 745        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 746
 747    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 748        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 749
 750    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 751        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 752        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 753        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 754
 755        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 756
 757        properties_sql = ""
 758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 759            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 760        ):
 761            properties_sql = self.sql(
 762                exp.Properties(
 763                    expressions=[
 764                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 766                    ]
 767                )
 768            )
 769
 770        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 771        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 772        if expression_sql:
 773            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 774
 775            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 776                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 777                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 778                        exp.Properties(
 779                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 780                        ),
 781                        wrapped=False,
 782                    )
 783                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 784                else:
 785                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 786
 787        postindex_props_sql = ""
 788        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 789            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 790                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 791                wrapped=False,
 792                prefix=" ",
 793            )
 794
 795        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 796        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 797        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 798
 799        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 800        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 801
 802        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 803        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 804            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 805                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 806                sep=" ",
 807                prefix=" ",
 808                wrapped=False,
 809            )
 810
 811        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 812
 813        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 815            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 816                exp.Properties(
 817                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 818                ),
 819                sep=" ",
 820                prefix=" ",
 821                wrapped=False,
 822            )
 823
 824        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 825        no_schema_binding = (
 826            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 827        )
 828
 829        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 830        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 831
 832        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 834
 835    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 838        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 839        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 840        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 841
 842        if when:
 843            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 844            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 845            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 846
 847        return this
 848
 849    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 850        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 851
 852    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 853        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 854        if with_:
 855            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 856        return sql
 857
 858    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 859        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 860        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 861
 862        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 863
 864    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 865        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 866        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 867
 868    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 869        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 871        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 872        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 873
 874    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        if self.BIT_START:
 877            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 878        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 879
 880    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        if self.HEX_START:
 883            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 884        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 885
 886    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        if self.BYTE_START:
 889            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 890        return this
 891
 892    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 893        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 894        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 895
 896    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 899        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 900        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 901
 902    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 903        type_value = expression.this
 904
 905        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 906            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 907        else:
 908            type_sql = (
 909                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 910                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 911                else type_value
 912            )
 913
 914        nested = ""
 915        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 916        values = ""
 917
 918        if interior:
 919            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 920                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 921                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 922                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 923                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 924                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 925            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 926                nested = f" {interior}"
 927            else:
 928                nested = f"({interior})"
 929
 930        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 931        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 932            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 933            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 934        ):
 935            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 936
 937        return type_sql
 938
 939    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 940        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 941        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 942        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 943        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 944
 945    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 948        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 949        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 950        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 951        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 952        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 953        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 954        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 955        if self.RETURNING_END:
 956            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 957        else:
 958            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 959        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 960
 961    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 964        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 965        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 966        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 967        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 968        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 969        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 970        return (
 971            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 972        )
 973
 974    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 975        return self.prepend_ctes(
 976            expression,
 977            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 978        )
 979
 980    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 981        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 982
 983    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 984        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 985        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 986        count = expression.args.get("count")
 987        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 988        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 989            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 990        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 991        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 992
 993    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 994        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 995            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 996            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 997            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 998
 999        agg = expression.this.copy()
1000        agg_arg = agg.this
1001        cond = expression.expression.this
1002        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1003        return self.sql(agg)
1004
1005    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1006        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1007            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1008            return ""
1009
1010        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1011
1012    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1013        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1014        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1015        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1016        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1017        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1018        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1019        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1020        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1021        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1022        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1023        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1024        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1025        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1026        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1027        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1028        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1029
1030    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1031        text = expression.name
1032        lower = text.lower()
1033        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1034        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1035        if (
1036            expression.quoted
1037            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1038            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1039            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1040        ):
1041            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1042        return text
1043
1044    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1045        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1046        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1047        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1048        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1049        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1050
1051    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1052        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1053        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1054
1055    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1056        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1057
1058    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1059        root_properties = []
1060        with_properties = []
1061
1062        for p in expression.expressions:
1063            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1064            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1065                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1066            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1067                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1068
1069        return self.root_properties(
1070            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1071        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1072
1073    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1074        if properties.expressions:
1075            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1076        return ""
1077
1078    def properties(
1079        self,
1080        properties: exp.Properties,
1081        prefix: str = "",
1082        sep: str = ", ",
1083        suffix: str = "",
1084        wrapped: bool = True,
1085    ) -> str:
1086        if properties.expressions:
1087            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1088            if expressions:
1089                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1090                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1091        return ""
1092
1093    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1094        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1095
1096    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1097        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1098        for p in properties.expressions:
1099            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1100            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1101                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1102            else:
1103                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1104
1105        return properties_locs
1106
1107    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1108        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1109            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1110        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1111
1112    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1113        property_cls = expression.__class__
1114        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1115            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1116
1117        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1118        if not property_name:
1119            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1120
1121        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1122
1123    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1124        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1125        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1126        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1127
1128    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1129        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1130        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1131        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1132
1133    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1134        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1135        local = expression.args.get("local")
1136        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1137        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1138        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1139        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1140        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1141
1142    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1143        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1144        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1145        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1146
1147    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1148        if expression.args.get("default"):
1149            property = "DEFAULT"
1150        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1151            property = "ON"
1152        else:
1153            property = "OFF"
1154        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1155
1156    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1157        if expression.args.get("no"):
1158            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1159        if expression.args.get("default"):
1160            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1161
1162        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1163        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1164
1165    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1166        default = expression.args.get("default")
1167        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1168        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1169        if default or minimum or maximum:
1170            if default:
1171                prop = "DEFAULT"
1172            elif minimum:
1173                prop = "MINIMUM"
1174            else:
1175                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1176            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1177        units = expression.args.get("units")
1178        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1179        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1180
1181    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1182        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1183        always = expression.args.get("always")
1184        default = expression.args.get("default")
1185        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1186        never = expression.args.get("never")
1187
1188        if autotemp is not None:
1189            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1190        elif always:
1191            prop = "ALWAYS"
1192        elif default:
1193            prop = "DEFAULT"
1194        elif manual:
1195            prop = "MANUAL"
1196        elif never:
1197            prop = "NEVER"
1198        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1199
1200    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1201        no = expression.args.get("no")
1202        no = " NO" if no else ""
1203        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1204        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1205
1206        for_ = ""
1207        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1208            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1209        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1210            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1211        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1212            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1213        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1214
1215    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1216        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1217        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1218        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1219        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1220        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1221        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1222
1223    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1224        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1225        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1226        statistics_sql = ""
1227        if statistics is not None:
1228            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1229        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1230
1231    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1232        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1233
1234        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1235            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1236        else:
1237            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1238
1239        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1240        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1241        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1242
1243        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1244
1245        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1246        partition_sql = (
1247            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1248        )
1249        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1250        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1251        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1252        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1253        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1255
1256        if self.RETURNING_END:
1257            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1258        else:
1259            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1260
1261        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1262        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1263
1264    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1265        return self.prepend_ctes(
1266            expression,
1267            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1268        )
1269
1270    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1271        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1272
1273    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1274        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1275
1276    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1278        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1281        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1282
1283    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1284        return expression.name.upper()
1285
1286    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1287        return expression.name.upper()
1288
1289    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1290        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1291        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1292        if constraint:
1293            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1294        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1295        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1296        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1297        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1298        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1299        if expressions:
1300            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1301        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1302
1303    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1304        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1305
1306    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1307        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1308        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1309        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1310        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1311        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1312        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1313        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1314        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1315        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1316        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1317        null = expression.args.get("null")
1318        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1319        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1320
1321    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1322        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1323
1324    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1325        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1326        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1327        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1328        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1329
1330    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1331        table = ".".join(
1332            part
1333            for part in [
1334                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1335                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1336                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1337            ]
1338            if part
1339        )
1340
1341        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1342        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1343        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1344        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1345        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1346        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1347        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1348        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1349        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1350        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1351        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1352        if file_format:
1353            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1354            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1355            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1356
1357        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1358
1359    def tablesample_sql(
1360        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1361    ) -> str:
1362        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1363            table = expression.this.copy()
1364            table.set("alias", None)
1365            this = self.sql(table)
1366            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1367        else:
1368            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369            alias = ""
1370
1371        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1372        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1373        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1374        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1375        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1376        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1377        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1378        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1379        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1380        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1381        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1382
1383        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1384        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1385            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1386
1387        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1388        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1389        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1390
1391        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1392        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1393            expr = f"({expr})"
1394
1395        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1396
1397    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1398        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1399
1400        if expression.this:
1401            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1402            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1403            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1404            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1405            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1406            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1407
1408        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1409        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1410        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1411        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1412        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1413        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1414        if include_nulls is not None:
1415            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1416        else:
1417            nulls = ""
1418        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1419
1420    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1421        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1422        kind = expression.text("kind")
1423        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1424        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1425
1426    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1427        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1428
1429    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1431        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1432        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1433        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1434        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1435        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1436        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1437        if self.RETURNING_END:
1438            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1439        else:
1440            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1441        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1442        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1443
1444    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1445        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1446        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1447            args = self.expressions(expression)
1448            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1449            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1450            values = (
1451                f"({values})"
1452                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1453                else values
1454            )
1455            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1456
1457        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1458        expression = expression.copy()
1459        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1460        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1461
1462        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1463
1464        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1465            row = tup.expressions
1466
1467            if i == 0 and column_names:
1468                row = [
1469                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1470                ]
1471
1472            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1473
1474        if self.pretty:
1475            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1476            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1477            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1478            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1479            return self.subquery_sql(
1480                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1481            )
1482
1483        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1484        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1485        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1486
1487    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1488        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1489
1490    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1491        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1492        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1493        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1494
1495    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1496        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1497
1498    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1499        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1500
1501        if expression.args.get("all"):
1502            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1503
1504        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1505        grouping_sets = (
1506            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1507        )
1508
1509        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1510        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1511            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1512        else:
1513            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1514            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1515
1516        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1517        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1518            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1519        else:
1520            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1521            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1522
1523        groupings = csv(
1524            grouping_sets,
1525            cube_sql,
1526            rollup_sql,
1527            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1528            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1529        )
1530
1531        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1532            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1533
1534        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1535
1536    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1537        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1538        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1539
1540    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1541        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1542        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1543        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1544        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1545        return start + connect
1546
1547    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1548        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1549
1550    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1551        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1552            side = None
1553        else:
1554            side = expression.side
1555
1556        op_sql = " ".join(
1557            op
1558            for op in (
1559                expression.method,
1560                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1561                side,
1562                expression.kind,
1563                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1564            )
1565            if op
1566        )
1567        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1568        using = expression.args.get("using")
1569
1570        if not on_sql and using:
1571            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1572
1573        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574
1575        if on_sql:
1576            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1577            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1578            if using:
1579                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1580            else:
1581                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1582        elif not op_sql:
1583            return f", {this_sql}"
1584
1585        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1586        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1587
1588    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1589        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1590        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1591        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1592
1593    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1595
1596        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1597            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1598
1599        if expression.args.get("view"):
1600            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1601            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1602            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1603            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1604            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1605            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1606
1607        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1608        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1609        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1610
1611    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613        args = ", ".join(
1614            sql
1615            for sql in (
1616                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1617                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1618            )
1619            if sql
1620        )
1621        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1622
1623    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1625        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1626
1627    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1628        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1629        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1631        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1632        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1633        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1634        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1635        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1636
1637    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1638        expressions = (
1639            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1640        )
1641        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1642        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1643
1644    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1645        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1646
1647    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1648        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1649            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1650            return ""
1651
1652        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1653        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1654        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1655        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1656
1657        if wait is not None:
1658            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1659                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1660            else:
1661                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1662
1663        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1664
1665    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1666        text = expression.this or ""
1667        if expression.is_string:
1668            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1669        return text
1670
1671    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1672        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1673        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1674            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1675        elif self.pretty:
1676            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1677        return text
1678
1679    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1680        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1681        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1682        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1683        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1684        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1685        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1686        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1687        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1688        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1689        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1690        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1691
1692    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1693        return "NULL"
1694
1695    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1696        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1697
1698    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1701        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1702
1703    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1704        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1705
1706    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1707        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1708
1709    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1710        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1711
1712    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1713        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1714        asc = not desc
1715
1716        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1717        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1718        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1719        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1720        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1721
1722        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1723        nulls_sort_change = ""
1724        if nulls_first and (
1725            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1726        ):
1727            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1728        elif (
1729            nulls_last
1730            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1731            and not nulls_are_last
1732        ):
1733            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1734
1735        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1736            self.unsupported(
1737                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1738            )
1739            nulls_sort_change = ""
1740
1741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1742
1743    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1744        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1745        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1746        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1747        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1748        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1749        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1750        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1751        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1752        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1753        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1754        definition_sqls = [
1755            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1756            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1757        ]
1758        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1759        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1760        body = "".join(
1761            (
1762                partition,
1763                order,
1764                measures,
1765                rows,
1766                after,
1767                pattern,
1768                define,
1769            )
1770        )
1771        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1772        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1773        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1774
1775    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1776        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1777
1778        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1779        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1780
1781        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1782            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1783        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1784            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1785
1786        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1787
1788        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1789            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1790            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1791            else []
1792        )
1793
1794        return csv(
1795            *sqls,
1796            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1797            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1798            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1799            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1800            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1801            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1802            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1803            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1804            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1805            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1806            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1807            sep="",
1808        )
1809
1810    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1811        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1812    ) -> t.List[str]:
1813        return [
1814            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1815            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1816        ]
1817
1818    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1819        return [
1820            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1821            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1822            if expression.args.get("windows")
1823            else "",
1824            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1825            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1826            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1827        ]
1828
1829    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1830        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1831        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1832        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1833
1834    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1835        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1836        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1837        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1838        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1839        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1840        top = (
1841            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1842            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1843            else ""
1844        )
1845
1846        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1847
1848        if kind:
1849            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1850                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1851            else:
1852                if kind == "STRUCT":
1853                    expressions = self.expressions(
1854                        sqls=[
1855                            self.sql(
1856                                exp.Struct(
1857                                    expressions=[
1858                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1859                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1860                                        )
1861                                        for e in expression.expressions
1862                                    ]
1863                                )
1864                            )
1865                        ]
1866                    )
1867                kind = ""
1868
1869        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1870        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1871            expression,
1872            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1873            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1874            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1875        )
1876        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1877
1878    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1881        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1882        return f"{this}{sql}"
1883
1884    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1885        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1886
1887    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1888        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1889        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1890        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1891        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1892        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1893
1894    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1896        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1897
1898    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        kind = expression.text("kind")
1901        if kind:
1902            kind = f"{kind}."
1903        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1904
1905    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1906        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1907
1908    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1909        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1910        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1911
1912        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1913        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1914
1915        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1917
1918    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1919        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1920        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1921
1922    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1923        return self.prepend_ctes(
1924            expression,
1925            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1926        )
1927
1928    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1929        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1930        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1931        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1932        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1933
1934    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1935        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936
1937        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1938        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1939
1940        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1941            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1942                alias = alias.copy()
1943                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1944
1945        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1946            columns = alias.columns
1947            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1948        else:
1949            alias = self.sql(alias)
1950
1951        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1952        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1953            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1954        else:
1955            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1956                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1957            elif offset:
1958                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1959            else:
1960                suffix = alias
1961
1962        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1963
1964    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1965        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1966        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1967
1968    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1971        order = expression.args.get("order")
1972        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1973        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1974        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1975        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1976
1977        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1978
1979        first = expression.args.get("first")
1980        if first is None:
1981            first = ""
1982        else:
1983            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1984
1985        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1986            return f"{this} {alias}"
1987
1988        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1989        return f"{this} ({args})"
1990
1991    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1992        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1993        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1994
1995    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1997        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1998        end = (
1999            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2000            or "CURRENT ROW"
2001        )
2002        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2003
2004    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2007        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2008
2009    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2012        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2013        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2014
2015    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2016        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2017        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2018
2019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2020
2021    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2022        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2023
2024    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2025        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2026
2027    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2030            this = self.wrap(this)
2031        return f"ANY {this}"
2032
2033    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2034        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2035
2036    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2039
2040        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2041            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2042            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2043
2044        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2045
2046        if default:
2047            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2048
2049        statements.append("END")
2050
2051        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2052            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2053
2054        return " ".join(statements)
2055
2056    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2059        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2060
2061    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2062        order = expression.args.get("order")
2063        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2064        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2065
2066    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2067        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2068        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2069        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2070
2071    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2072        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2073
2074        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2075            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2076        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2077            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2078        else:
2079            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2080
2081    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2082        expressions = expression.expressions
2083        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2084            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2085        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2086
2087    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2088        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2089        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2090
2091    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2094        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2095        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2096        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2097        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2098        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2099        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2100
2101    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2103        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2104        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2105        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2106
2107    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2108        expression = expression.copy()
2109        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2110
2111    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2112        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2113        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2114        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2115
2116    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2117        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2118
2119    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2121
2122    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2123        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2124        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2125        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2126        if unique_keys is not None:
2127            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2128        else:
2129            unique_keys = ""
2130        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2131        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2132        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2133        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2134        return self.func(
2135            "JSON_OBJECT",
2136            *expression.expressions,
2137            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2138        )
2139
2140    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2141        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2142        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2143        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2144        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2145        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2146        return self.func(
2147            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2148        )
2149
2150    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2153        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2154        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2155        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2156        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2157        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2158        return self.func(
2159            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2160            this,
2161            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2162        )
2163
2164    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2166        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2167        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2168        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2169        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2170        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2171
2172    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2175        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2176        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2177        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2178        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2179        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2180        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2181        return self.func(
2182            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2183        )
2184
2185    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2188        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2189        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2190        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2191        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2192
2193    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2195        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2196        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2198        with_ = (
2199            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2200            if expressions
2201            else ""
2202        )
2203        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2204
2205    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2206        query = expression.args.get("query")
2207        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2208        field = expression.args.get("field")
2209        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2210
2211        if query:
2212            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2213        elif unnest:
2214            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2215        elif field:
2216            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2217        else:
2218            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2219
2220        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2221
2222    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2223        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2224
2225    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2226        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2227        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2228            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2229        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2230
2231        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2232            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2233            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2234
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        if this:
2237            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2238            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2239
2240        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2241
2242    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2243        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2244
2245    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2247        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2248        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2249        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2250        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2251        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2252
2253    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2254        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2255
2256    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2257        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2258            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2259        else:
2260            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2261            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2262
2263        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2264
2265    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2266        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2267        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2269        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2270
2271    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2272        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2273
2274    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2275        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2276        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2277        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2278
2279    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2280        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2281
2282    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2285        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2286
2287    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2289
2290    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2291        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2292
2293    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2294        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2295
2296    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2297        if not self.pretty:
2298            return self.binary(expression, op)
2299
2300        sqls = tuple(
2301            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2302            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2303        )
2304
2305        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2306        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2307
2308    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2310
2311    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2313
2314    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2315        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2316
2317    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2319
2320    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2322
2323    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2325
2326    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2327        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2328        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2329        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2330
2331    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2332        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2334
2335    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2336        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2337            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2338        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2339
2340    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2341        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2342
2343    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2345        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2346        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2347        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2348        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2349
2350    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2353        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2354        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2355        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2356        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2357        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2358        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2359        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2360
2361    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2362        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2363        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2364        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2365        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2366
2367        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2368            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2369
2370        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2371
2372    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2373        return "BEGIN"
2374
2375    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2376        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2377        if chain is not None:
2378            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2379
2380        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2381
2382    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2383        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2384        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2385        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2386
2387    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2389
2390        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2391        if dtype:
2392            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2393            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2394            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2395            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2396            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2397
2398        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2399        if default:
2400            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2401
2402        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2403            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2404
2405        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2406
2407    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2408        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2409            # Remove db from tables
2410            expression = expression.transform(
2411                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2412            )
2413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2414        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2415
2416    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2417        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2418
2419        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2420            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2421                actions = self.expressions(
2422                    expression,
2423                    key="actions",
2424                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2425                )
2426            else:
2427                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2428        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2429            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2430        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2431            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2432        else:
2433            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2434
2435        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2436        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2437        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2438
2439    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2440        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2441        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2442        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2443
2444    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2447        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2448
2449        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2450        if enforced is not None:
2451            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2452
2453        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2454
2455    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2456        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2458
2459        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2460        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2461        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2462
2463    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2465
2466    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2468
2469    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2470        return self.sql(
2471            exp.Cast(
2472                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2473                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2474            )
2475        )
2476
2477    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2478        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2479
2480    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2481        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2482            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2483        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2484
2485    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2486        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2487
2488    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2490
2491    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2492        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2493
2494    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2495        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2496
2497    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2498        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2499
2500    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2501        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2502
2503    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2504        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2505
2506    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2507        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2508
2509    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2510        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2511
2512    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2513        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2514
2515    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2516        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2517
2518    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2519        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2520            return self.sql(
2521                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2522            )
2523        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2524
2525    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2526        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2527
2528    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2529        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2530
2531    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2532        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2533
2534    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2535        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2536
2537    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2539
2540    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2541        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2542
2543    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2544        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2545
2546    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2547        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2548
2549    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2550        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2551
2552    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2553        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2554
2555    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2556        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2557
2558    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2559        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2560
2561    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2562        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2563
2564    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2565        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2566
2567    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2568        args = list(expression.args.values())
2569        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2570            args.reverse()
2571        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2572
2573    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2574        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2575        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2577        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2578        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2579
2580    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2581        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2583
2584    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2585        args = []
2586
2587        for key in expression.arg_types:
2588            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2589
2590            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2591                for value in arg_value:
2592                    args.append(value)
2593            elif arg_value is not None:
2594                args.append(arg_value)
2595
2596        if self.normalize_functions:
2597            name = expression.sql_name()
2598        else:
2599            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2600
2601        return self.func(name, *args)
2602
2603    def func(
2604        self,
2605        name: str,
2606        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2607        prefix: str = "(",
2608        suffix: str = ")",
2609    ) -> str:
2610        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2611
2612    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2613        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2614        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2615            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2616        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2617
2618    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2619        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2620
2621    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2622        return format_time(
2623            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2624        )
2625
2626    def expressions(
2627        self,
2628        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2629        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2630        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2631        flat: bool = False,
2632        indent: bool = True,
2633        skip_first: bool = False,
2634        sep: str = ", ",
2635        prefix: str = "",
2636    ) -> str:
2637        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2638
2639        if not expressions:
2640            return ""
2641
2642        if flat:
2643            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2644
2645        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2646
2647        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2648        pad = " " * self.pad
2649        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2650
2651        result_sqls = []
2652        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2653            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2654            if not sql:
2655                continue
2656
2657            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2658
2659            if self.pretty:
2660                if self.leading_comma:
2661                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2662                else:
2663                    result_sqls.append(
2664                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2665                    )
2666            else:
2667                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2668
2669        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2670        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2671
2672    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2673        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2674        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2675        if flat:
2676            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2677        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2678
2679    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2680        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2681        if not property_name:
2682            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2683        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2684
2685    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2687        op = self.seg(op)
2688        return self.query_modifiers(
2689            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2690        )
2691
2692    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2693        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2694
2695    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2696        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2697
2698    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2701        expressions = (
2702            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2703        )
2704        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2705
2706    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2708        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2709        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2710
2711    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2712        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2713
2714    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2715        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2716        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2717        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2718        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2719
2720        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2721        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2722            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2723            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2724                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2725        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2726            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2727                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2728            else:
2729                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2730        else:
2731            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2732        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2733
2734    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2735        table = expression.this
2736        table_alias = ""
2737
2738        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2739        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2740            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2741            table = table.copy()
2742            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2743
2744        this = self.sql(table)
2745        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2746        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2747        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2748
2749        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2750
2751    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2752        if expression.args.get("format"):
2753            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2754
2755        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2756
2757    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2760        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2761        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2762        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2763
2764    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2766        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2767        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2768        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2769
2770    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2771        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2772
2773    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2774        return ""
2775
2776    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2777        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2778        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2779        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2780        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2781        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2782
2783    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2786
2787        if having:
2788            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2789
2790        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2791
2792    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2793        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2794        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2795        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2796        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2797        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2798        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2799        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2800        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2801        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2802        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2803        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2804        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2805        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2806
2807    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2808        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2809        if key_block_size:
2810            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2811
2812        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2813        if using:
2814            return f"USING {using}"
2815
2816        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2817        if parser:
2818            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2819
2820        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2821        if comment:
2822            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2823
2824        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2825        if visible is not None:
2826            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2827
2828        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2829        if engine_attr:
2830            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2831
2832        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2833        if secondary_engine_attr:
2834            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2835
2836        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2837        return ""
2838
2839    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2840        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2841        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2843        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2844        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2845        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2846        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2847        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2848        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2849        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2850        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2851
2852    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2853        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2854            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2855
2856        case = exp.Case().when(
2857            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2858            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2859            copy=False,
2860        )
2861        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2862        if else_cond:
2863            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2864
2865        return self.sql(case)
2866
2867    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2870        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2871        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2872        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2873        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2874
2875    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2877
2878    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2880
2881
2882def cached_generator(
2883    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2884) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2885    """Returns a cached generator."""
2886    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2887    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2888    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  18class Generator:
  19    """
  20    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  21
  22    Args:
  23        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  24            Default: False.
  25        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  26            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  27            True or 'always': Always quote.
  28            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  29        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  30            Default: False.
  31        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  36            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  37            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  38            False: Disables function name normalization.
  39        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  40            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  41        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  42            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  43            Default: 3
  44        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  45            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  46            Default: False
  47        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  48            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  49            line length.
  50            Default: 80
  51        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  52            Default: True
  53    """
  54
  55    TRANSFORMS = {
  56        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  92        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  93        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  94        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  95        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  96        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  97        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  98        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 100        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 101        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 102        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103    }
 104
 105    # Whether the base comes first
 106    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 109    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 112    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 113
 114    # Always do union distinct or union all
 115    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 116
 117    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 118    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 121    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 124    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 127    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 130    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 133    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 136    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 142    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 143
 144    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 145    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 146
 147    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 148    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 149
 150    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 151    JOIN_HINTS = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 154    TABLE_HINTS = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 157    QUERY_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 160    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 161
 162    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 163    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 166    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 169    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 172    RETURNING_END = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 175    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 178    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 179
 180    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 181    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 182
 183    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 184    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 185
 186    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 187    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 188
 189    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 190    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 191    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 192    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 193
 194    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 195    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 196
 197    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 198    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 199
 200    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 201    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 204    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 207    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 210    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 213    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 216    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 219    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 220
 221    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 222    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 223
 224    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 225        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 226        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 227        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 228        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 229        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 230        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 231        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 232        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 233        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 234    }
 235
 236    STAR_MAPPING = {
 237        "except": "EXCEPT",
 238        "replace": "REPLACE",
 239    }
 240
 241    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 242        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 243        "seconds": "second",
 244        "minutes": "minute",
 245        "hours": "hour",
 246        "days": "day",
 247        "weeks": "week",
 248        "months": "month",
 249        "quarters": "quarter",
 250        "years": "year",
 251    }
 252
 253    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 254
 255    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 256
 257    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 258
 259    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 260        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 261        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 263        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 265        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 270        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 280        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 282        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 283        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 288        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 290        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 292        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 294        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 296        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 298        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 308        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 310        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 312        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 314        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 316        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 317        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 318    }
 319
 320    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 321    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 322
 323    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 324    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 325        exp.Create,
 326        exp.Delete,
 327        exp.Drop,
 328        exp.From,
 329        exp.Insert,
 330        exp.Join,
 331        exp.Select,
 332        exp.Update,
 333        exp.Where,
 334        exp.With,
 335    )
 336
 337    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 338    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 339        exp.Column,
 340        exp.Literal,
 341        exp.Neg,
 342        exp.Paren,
 343    )
 344
 345    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 346
 347    # Autofilled
 348    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 349    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 350    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 351    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 352    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 353    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 354    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 355    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 356    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 357    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 358
 359    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 360
 361    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 362    QUOTE_START = "'"
 363    QUOTE_END = "'"
 364    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 365    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 366    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 367
 368    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 369    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 370    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 371    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 372    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 373    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 374    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 375
 376    __slots__ = (
 377        "pretty",
 378        "identify",
 379        "normalize",
 380        "pad",
 381        "_indent",
 382        "normalize_functions",
 383        "unsupported_level",
 384        "max_unsupported",
 385        "leading_comma",
 386        "max_text_width",
 387        "comments",
 388        "unsupported_messages",
 389        "_escaped_quote_end",
 390        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 391        "_cache",
 392    )
 393
 394    def __init__(
 395        self,
 396        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 397        identify: str | bool = False,
 398        normalize: bool = False,
 399        pad: int = 2,
 400        indent: int = 2,
 401        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 402        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 403        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 404        leading_comma: bool = False,
 405        max_text_width: int = 80,
 406        comments: bool = True,
 407    ):
 408        import sqlglot
 409
 410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 411        self.identify = identify
 412        self.normalize = normalize
 413        self.pad = pad
 414        self._indent = indent
 415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 419        self.comments = comments
 420
 421        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 422        self.normalize_functions = (
 423            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 424        )
 425
 426        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 427        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 428        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 429            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 430        )
 431        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 432
 433    def generate(
 434        self,
 435        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 436        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 437    ) -> str:
 438        """
 439        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 440
 441        Args:
 442            expression: The syntax tree.
 443            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 444                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 445
 446        Returns:
 447            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 448        """
 449        if cache is not None:
 450            self._cache = cache
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages = []
 453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 454        self._cache = None
 455
 456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 457            return sql
 458
 459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 461                logger.warning(msg)
 462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 464
 465        if self.pretty:
 466            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 467        return sql
 468
 469    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 470        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 471            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 472        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 473
 474    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 475        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 476
 477    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 478        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 479
 480    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 481        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 482        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 483        return comment
 484
 485    def maybe_comment(
 486        self,
 487        sql: str,
 488        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 489        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 490    ) -> str:
 491        comments = (
 492            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 493            if self.comments
 494            else None
 495        )
 496
 497        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 498            return sql
 499
 500        comments_sql = " ".join(
 501            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 502        )
 503
 504        if not comments_sql:
 505            return sql
 506
 507        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 508            return (
 509                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 510                if sql[0].isspace()
 511                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 512            )
 513
 514        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 515
 516    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 517        this_sql = self.indent(
 518            self.sql(expression)
 519            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 520            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 521            level=1,
 522            pad=0,
 523        )
 524        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 525
 526    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 527        original = self.identify
 528        self.identify = False
 529        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 530        self.identify = original
 531        return result
 532
 533    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 534        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 535            return name.upper()
 536        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 537            return name.lower()
 538        return name
 539
 540    def indent(
 541        self,
 542        sql: str,
 543        level: int = 0,
 544        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 545        skip_first: bool = False,
 546        skip_last: bool = False,
 547    ) -> str:
 548        if not self.pretty:
 549            return sql
 550
 551        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 552        lines = sql.split("\n")
 553
 554        return "\n".join(
 555            line
 556            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 557            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 558            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 559        )
 560
 561    def sql(
 562        self,
 563        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 564        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 565        comment: bool = True,
 566    ) -> str:
 567        if not expression:
 568            return ""
 569
 570        if isinstance(expression, str):
 571            return expression
 572
 573        if key:
 574            value = expression.args.get(key)
 575            if value:
 576                return self.sql(value)
 577            return ""
 578
 579        if self._cache is not None:
 580            expression_id = hash(expression)
 581
 582            if expression_id in self._cache:
 583                return self._cache[expression_id]
 584
 585        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 586
 587        if callable(transform):
 588            sql = transform(self, expression)
 589        elif transform:
 590            sql = transform
 591        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 592            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 593
 594            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 595                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 596            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 597                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 598            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 599                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 600            else:
 601                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 602        else:
 603            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 604
 605        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 606
 607        if self._cache is not None:
 608            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 609        return sql
 610
 611    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 612        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 613        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 614        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 615
 616    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 617        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 619        options = expression.args.get("options")
 620        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 621        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 622        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 623        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 625
 626    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 627        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 628            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 629        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 630        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 631
 632    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 633        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 634
 635        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 636            join_mark = ""
 637            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 638
 639        column = ".".join(
 640            self.sql(part)
 641            for part in (
 642                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 643                expression.args.get("db"),
 644                expression.args.get("table"),
 645                expression.args.get("this"),
 646            )
 647            if part
 648        )
 649
 650        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 651
 652    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 655        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 656        return f"{position}{this}"
 657
 658    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 659        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 661        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 662        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 663        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 664        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 665        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 666        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 667
 668        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 669            kind = ""
 670
 671        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 672
 673    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 675        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 676        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 677
 678    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 680        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 681            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 682        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 683            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 684        else:
 685            persisted = ""
 686        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 687
 688    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 689        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 690
 691    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 693            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 694        else:
 695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 696
 697        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 698
 699    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 700        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 701    ) -> str:
 702        this = ""
 703        if expression.this is not None:
 704            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 705            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 706
 707        start = expression.args.get("start")
 708        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 709        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 710        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 711        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 712        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 713        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 714        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 715        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 716        cycle_sql = ""
 717
 718        if cycle is not None:
 719            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 720            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 721
 722        sequence_opts = ""
 723        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 724            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 725            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 726
 727        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 728        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 729
 730        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 731
 732    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 733        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 734
 735    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 736        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 737        if desc is not None:
 738            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 739        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 740
 741    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 743        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 744        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 745        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 746        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 747
 748    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 749        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 750
 751    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 753        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 754        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 755
 756        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 757
 758        properties_sql = ""
 759        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 760            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 761        ):
 762            properties_sql = self.sql(
 763                exp.Properties(
 764                    expressions=[
 765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 766                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 767                    ]
 768                )
 769            )
 770
 771        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 772        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 773        if expression_sql:
 774            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 775
 776            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 777                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 778                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 779                        exp.Properties(
 780                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 781                        ),
 782                        wrapped=False,
 783                    )
 784                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 785                else:
 786                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 787
 788        postindex_props_sql = ""
 789        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 790            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 791                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 792                wrapped=False,
 793                prefix=" ",
 794            )
 795
 796        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 797        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 798        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 799
 800        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 801        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 802
 803        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 804        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 805            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 806                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 807                sep=" ",
 808                prefix=" ",
 809                wrapped=False,
 810            )
 811
 812        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 813
 814        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 816            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 817                exp.Properties(
 818                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 819                ),
 820                sep=" ",
 821                prefix=" ",
 822                wrapped=False,
 823            )
 824
 825        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        no_schema_binding = (
 827            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 828        )
 829
 830        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 831        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 832
 833        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 834        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 835
 836    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 839        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 840        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 841        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 842
 843        if when:
 844            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 845            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 846            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 847
 848        return this
 849
 850    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 851        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 852
 853    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 854        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 855        if with_:
 856            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 857        return sql
 858
 859    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 860        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 861        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 862
 863        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 864
 865    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 866        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 867        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 868
 869    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 870        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 872        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 873        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 874
 875    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        if self.BIT_START:
 878            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 879        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 880
 881    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 883        if self.HEX_START:
 884            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 885        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 886
 887    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 889        if self.BYTE_START:
 890            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 891        return this
 892
 893    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 894        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 895        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 896
 897    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 899        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 900        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 901        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 902
 903    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 904        type_value = expression.this
 905
 906        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 907            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 908        else:
 909            type_sql = (
 910                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 911                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 912                else type_value
 913            )
 914
 915        nested = ""
 916        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 917        values = ""
 918
 919        if interior:
 920            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 921                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 922                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 923                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 924                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 925                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 926            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 927                nested = f" {interior}"
 928            else:
 929                nested = f"({interior})"
 930
 931        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 932        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 933            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 934            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 935        ):
 936            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 937
 938        return type_sql
 939
 940    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 941        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 942        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 943        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 944        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 945
 946    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 949        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 950        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 951        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 952        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 953        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 954        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 955        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 956        if self.RETURNING_END:
 957            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 958        else:
 959            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 960        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 961
 962    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 964        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 965        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 966        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 967        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 968        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 969        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 970        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 971        return (
 972            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 973        )
 974
 975    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 976        return self.prepend_ctes(
 977            expression,
 978            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 979        )
 980
 981    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 982        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 983
 984    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 985        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 986        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 987        count = expression.args.get("count")
 988        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 989        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 990            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 991        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 992        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 993
 994    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 995        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 996            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 997            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 998            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 999
1000        agg = expression.this.copy()
1001        agg_arg = agg.this
1002        cond = expression.expression.this
1003        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1004        return self.sql(agg)
1005
1006    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1007        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1008            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1009            return ""
1010
1011        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1012
1013    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1014        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1015        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1016        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1017        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1018        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1019        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1020        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1021        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1022        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1023        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1024        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1025        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1026        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1027        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1028        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1029        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1030
1031    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1032        text = expression.name
1033        lower = text.lower()
1034        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1035        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1036        if (
1037            expression.quoted
1038            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1039            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1040            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1041        ):
1042            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1043        return text
1044
1045    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1046        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1047        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1048        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1049        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1050        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1051
1052    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1053        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1054        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1055
1056    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1057        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1058
1059    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1060        root_properties = []
1061        with_properties = []
1062
1063        for p in expression.expressions:
1064            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1065            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1066                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1067            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1068                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1069
1070        return self.root_properties(
1071            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1072        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1073
1074    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1075        if properties.expressions:
1076            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1077        return ""
1078
1079    def properties(
1080        self,
1081        properties: exp.Properties,
1082        prefix: str = "",
1083        sep: str = ", ",
1084        suffix: str = "",
1085        wrapped: bool = True,
1086    ) -> str:
1087        if properties.expressions:
1088            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1089            if expressions:
1090                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1091                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1092        return ""
1093
1094    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1095        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1096
1097    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1098        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1099        for p in properties.expressions:
1100            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1101            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1102                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1103            else:
1104                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1105
1106        return properties_locs
1107
1108    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1109        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1110            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1112
1113    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1114        property_cls = expression.__class__
1115        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1116            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1117
1118        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1119        if not property_name:
1120            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1121
1122        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1123
1124    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1125        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1126        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1127        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1128
1129    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1130        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1131        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1132        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1133
1134    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1135        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1136        local = expression.args.get("local")
1137        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1138        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1139        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1140        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1141        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1142
1143    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1144        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1146        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1147
1148    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1149        if expression.args.get("default"):
1150            property = "DEFAULT"
1151        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1152            property = "ON"
1153        else:
1154            property = "OFF"
1155        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1156
1157    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1158        if expression.args.get("no"):
1159            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1160        if expression.args.get("default"):
1161            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1162
1163        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1164        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1165
1166    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1167        default = expression.args.get("default")
1168        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1169        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1170        if default or minimum or maximum:
1171            if default:
1172                prop = "DEFAULT"
1173            elif minimum:
1174                prop = "MINIMUM"
1175            else:
1176                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1177            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1178        units = expression.args.get("units")
1179        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1180        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1181
1182    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1183        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1184        always = expression.args.get("always")
1185        default = expression.args.get("default")
1186        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1187        never = expression.args.get("never")
1188
1189        if autotemp is not None:
1190            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1191        elif always:
1192            prop = "ALWAYS"
1193        elif default:
1194            prop = "DEFAULT"
1195        elif manual:
1196            prop = "MANUAL"
1197        elif never:
1198            prop = "NEVER"
1199        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1200
1201    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1202        no = expression.args.get("no")
1203        no = " NO" if no else ""
1204        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1205        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1206
1207        for_ = ""
1208        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1209            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1210        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1211            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1212        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1213            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1214        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1215
1216    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1217        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1218        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1219        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1220        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1221        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1222        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1223
1224    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1225        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1226        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1227        statistics_sql = ""
1228        if statistics is not None:
1229            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1230        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1231
1232    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1233        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1234
1235        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1236            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1237        else:
1238            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1239
1240        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1241        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1242        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1243
1244        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1245
1246        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1247        partition_sql = (
1248            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1249        )
1250        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1251        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1252        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1253        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1254        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1255        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1256
1257        if self.RETURNING_END:
1258            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1259        else:
1260            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1261
1262        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1263        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1264
1265    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1266        return self.prepend_ctes(
1267            expression,
1268            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1269        )
1270
1271    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1272        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1273
1274    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1275        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1276
1277    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1278        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1282        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1283
1284    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1285        return expression.name.upper()
1286
1287    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1288        return expression.name.upper()
1289
1290    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1291        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1292        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1293        if constraint:
1294            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1295        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1296        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1297        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1298        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1299        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1300        if expressions:
1301            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1302        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1303
1304    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1305        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1306
1307    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1308        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1309        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1310        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1311        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1312        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1313        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1314        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1315        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1316        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1317        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1318        null = expression.args.get("null")
1319        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1320        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1321
1322    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1323        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1324
1325    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1326        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1327        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1328        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1329        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1330
1331    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1332        table = ".".join(
1333            part
1334            for part in [
1335                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1336                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1337                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1338            ]
1339            if part
1340        )
1341
1342        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1343        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1344        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1345        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1346        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1347        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1348        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1349        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1350        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1351        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1352        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1353        if file_format:
1354            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1355            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1356            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1357
1358        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1359
1360    def tablesample_sql(
1361        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1362    ) -> str:
1363        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1364            table = expression.this.copy()
1365            table.set("alias", None)
1366            this = self.sql(table)
1367            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1368        else:
1369            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370            alias = ""
1371
1372        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1373        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1374        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1375        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1376        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1377        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1378        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1379        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1380        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1381        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1382        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1383
1384        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1385        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1386            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1387
1388        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1389        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1390        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1391
1392        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1393        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1394            expr = f"({expr})"
1395
1396        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1397
1398    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1400
1401        if expression.this:
1402            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1404            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1405            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1406            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1407            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1408
1409        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1410        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1411        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1412        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1413        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1414        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1415        if include_nulls is not None:
1416            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1417        else:
1418            nulls = ""
1419        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1420
1421    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1422        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1423        kind = expression.text("kind")
1424        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1425        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1426
1427    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1428        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1429
1430    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1433        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1434        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1435        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1436        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1437        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1438        if self.RETURNING_END:
1439            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1440        else:
1441            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1442        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1443        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1444
1445    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1446        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1447        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1448            args = self.expressions(expression)
1449            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1450            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1451            values = (
1452                f"({values})"
1453                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1454                else values
1455            )
1456            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1457
1458        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1459        expression = expression.copy()
1460        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1461        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1462
1463        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1464
1465        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1466            row = tup.expressions
1467
1468            if i == 0 and column_names:
1469                row = [
1470                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1471                ]
1472
1473            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1474
1475        if self.pretty:
1476            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1477            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1478            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1479            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1480            return self.subquery_sql(
1481                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1482            )
1483
1484        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1485        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1486        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1487
1488    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1489        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1490
1491    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1492        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1493        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1494        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1495
1496    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1497        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1498
1499    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1500        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1501
1502        if expression.args.get("all"):
1503            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1504
1505        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1506        grouping_sets = (
1507            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1508        )
1509
1510        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1511        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1512            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1513        else:
1514            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1515            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1516
1517        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1518        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1519            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1520        else:
1521            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1522            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1523
1524        groupings = csv(
1525            grouping_sets,
1526            cube_sql,
1527            rollup_sql,
1528            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1529            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1530        )
1531
1532        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1533            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1534
1535        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1536
1537    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1538        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1539        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1540
1541    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1542        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1543        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1544        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1545        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1546        return start + connect
1547
1548    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1549        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1550
1551    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1552        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1553            side = None
1554        else:
1555            side = expression.side
1556
1557        op_sql = " ".join(
1558            op
1559            for op in (
1560                expression.method,
1561                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1562                side,
1563                expression.kind,
1564                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1565            )
1566            if op
1567        )
1568        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1569        using = expression.args.get("using")
1570
1571        if not on_sql and using:
1572            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1573
1574        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1575
1576        if on_sql:
1577            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1578            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1579            if using:
1580                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1581            else:
1582                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1583        elif not op_sql:
1584            return f", {this_sql}"
1585
1586        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1587        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1588
1589    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1590        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1591        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1592        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1593
1594    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1596
1597        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1598            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1599
1600        if expression.args.get("view"):
1601            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1602            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1603            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1604            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1605            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1606            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1607
1608        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1609        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1610        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1611
1612    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        args = ", ".join(
1615            sql
1616            for sql in (
1617                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1618                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1619            )
1620            if sql
1621        )
1622        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1623
1624    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1626        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1627
1628    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1630        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1632        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1633        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1634        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1635        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1636        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1637
1638    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1639        expressions = (
1640            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1641        )
1642        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1643        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1644
1645    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1646        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1647
1648    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1649        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1650            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1651            return ""
1652
1653        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1654        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1655        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1656        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1657
1658        if wait is not None:
1659            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1660                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1661            else:
1662                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1663
1664        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1665
1666    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1667        text = expression.this or ""
1668        if expression.is_string:
1669            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1670        return text
1671
1672    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1673        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1674        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1675            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1676        elif self.pretty:
1677            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1678        return text
1679
1680    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1681        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1682        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1683        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1684        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1685        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1686        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1687        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1688        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1689        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1690        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1691        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1692
1693    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1694        return "NULL"
1695
1696    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1697        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1698
1699    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1702        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1703
1704    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1705        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1706
1707    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1708        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1709
1710    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1711        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1712
1713    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1714        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1715        asc = not desc
1716
1717        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1718        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1719        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1720        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1721        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1722
1723        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1724        nulls_sort_change = ""
1725        if nulls_first and (
1726            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1727        ):
1728            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1729        elif (
1730            nulls_last
1731            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1732            and not nulls_are_last
1733        ):
1734            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1735
1736        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1737            self.unsupported(
1738                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1739            )
1740            nulls_sort_change = ""
1741
1742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1743
1744    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1745        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1746        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1747        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1748        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1749        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1750        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1751        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1752        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1753        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1754        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1755        definition_sqls = [
1756            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1757            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1758        ]
1759        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1760        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1761        body = "".join(
1762            (
1763                partition,
1764                order,
1765                measures,
1766                rows,
1767                after,
1768                pattern,
1769                define,
1770            )
1771        )
1772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1773        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1774        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1775
1776    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1777        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1778
1779        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1780        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1781
1782        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1783            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1784        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1785            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1786
1787        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1788
1789        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1790            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1791            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1792            else []
1793        )
1794
1795        return csv(
1796            *sqls,
1797            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1798            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1799            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1800            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1801            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1802            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1803            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1804            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1805            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1806            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1807            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1808            sep="",
1809        )
1810
1811    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1812        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1813    ) -> t.List[str]:
1814        return [
1815            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1816            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1817        ]
1818
1819    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1820        return [
1821            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1822            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1823            if expression.args.get("windows")
1824            else "",
1825            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1826            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1827            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1828        ]
1829
1830    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1831        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1832        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1833        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1834
1835    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1836        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1837        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1838        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1839        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1840        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1841        top = (
1842            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1843            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1844            else ""
1845        )
1846
1847        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1848
1849        if kind:
1850            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1851                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1852            else:
1853                if kind == "STRUCT":
1854                    expressions = self.expressions(
1855                        sqls=[
1856                            self.sql(
1857                                exp.Struct(
1858                                    expressions=[
1859                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1860                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1861                                        )
1862                                        for e in expression.expressions
1863                                    ]
1864                                )
1865                            )
1866                        ]
1867                    )
1868                kind = ""
1869
1870        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1871        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1872            expression,
1873            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1874            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1875            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1876        )
1877        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1878
1879    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1882        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1883        return f"{this}{sql}"
1884
1885    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1886        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1887
1888    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1889        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1890        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1891        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1892        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1893        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1894
1895    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1898
1899    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1901        kind = expression.text("kind")
1902        if kind:
1903            kind = f"{kind}."
1904        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1905
1906    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1907        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1908
1909    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1910        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1911        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1912
1913        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1914        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1915
1916        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1917        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1918
1919    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1920        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1921        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1922
1923    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1924        return self.prepend_ctes(
1925            expression,
1926            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1927        )
1928
1929    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1930        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1931        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1932        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1933        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1934
1935    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1936        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1937
1938        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1939        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1940
1941        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1942            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1943                alias = alias.copy()
1944                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1945
1946        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1947            columns = alias.columns
1948            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1949        else:
1950            alias = self.sql(alias)
1951
1952        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1953        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1954            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1955        else:
1956            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1957                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1958            elif offset:
1959                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1960            else:
1961                suffix = alias
1962
1963        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1964
1965    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1966        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1967        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1968
1969    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1972        order = expression.args.get("order")
1973        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1974        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1975        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1976        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1977
1978        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1979
1980        first = expression.args.get("first")
1981        if first is None:
1982            first = ""
1983        else:
1984            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1985
1986        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1987            return f"{this} {alias}"
1988
1989        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1990        return f"{this} ({args})"
1991
1992    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1993        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1994        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1995
1996    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1998        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1999        end = (
2000            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2001            or "CURRENT ROW"
2002        )
2003        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2004
2005    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2007        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2008        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2009
2010    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2013        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2014        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2015
2016    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2017        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2018        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2019
2020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2021
2022    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2023        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2024
2025    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2026        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2027
2028    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2031            this = self.wrap(this)
2032        return f"ANY {this}"
2033
2034    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2035        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2036
2037    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2040
2041        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2042            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2043            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2044
2045        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2046
2047        if default:
2048            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2049
2050        statements.append("END")
2051
2052        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2053            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2054
2055        return " ".join(statements)
2056
2057    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2061
2062    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2063        order = expression.args.get("order")
2064        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2065        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2066
2067    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2069        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2070        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2071
2072    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2073        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2074
2075        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2076            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2077        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2078            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2079        else:
2080            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2081
2082    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2083        expressions = expression.expressions
2084        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2085            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2086        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2087
2088    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2090        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2091
2092    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2095        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2096        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2097        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2098        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2099        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2100        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2101
2102    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2104        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2105        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2106        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2107
2108    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2109        expression = expression.copy()
2110        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2111
2112    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2113        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2114        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2115        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2116
2117    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2118        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2119
2120    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2122
2123    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2124        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2125        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2126        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2127        if unique_keys is not None:
2128            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2129        else:
2130            unique_keys = ""
2131        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2132        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2133        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2134        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2135        return self.func(
2136            "JSON_OBJECT",
2137            *expression.expressions,
2138            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2139        )
2140
2141    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2142        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2143        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2144        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2145        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2146        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2147        return self.func(
2148            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2149        )
2150
2151    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2154        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2155        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2156        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2157        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2158        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2159        return self.func(
2160            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2161            this,
2162            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2163        )
2164
2165    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2167        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2168        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2169        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2170        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2171        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2172
2173    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2176        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2177        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2178        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2179        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2180        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2181        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2182        return self.func(
2183            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2184        )
2185
2186    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2189        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2190        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2191        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2192        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2193
2194    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2196        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2197        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2199        with_ = (
2200            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2201            if expressions
2202            else ""
2203        )
2204        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2205
2206    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2207        query = expression.args.get("query")
2208        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2209        field = expression.args.get("field")
2210        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2211
2212        if query:
2213            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2214        elif unnest:
2215            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2216        elif field:
2217            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2218        else:
2219            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2220
2221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2222
2223    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2224        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2225
2226    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2227        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2228        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2229            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2230        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2231
2232        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2233            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2234            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2235
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        if this:
2238            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2239            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2240
2241        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2242
2243    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2244        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2245
2246    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2249        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2250        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2251        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2252        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2253
2254    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2255        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2256
2257    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2258        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2259            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2260        else:
2261            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2262            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2263
2264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2265
2266    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2267        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2268        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2270        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2271
2272    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2273        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2274
2275    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2277        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2278        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2279
2280    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2282
2283    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2286        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2287
2288    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2290
2291    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2292        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2293
2294    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2295        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2296
2297    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2298        if not self.pretty:
2299            return self.binary(expression, op)
2300
2301        sqls = tuple(
2302            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2303            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2304        )
2305
2306        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2307        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2308
2309    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2311
2312    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2314
2315    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2316        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2317
2318    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2320
2321    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2323
2324    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2326
2327    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2328        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2329        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2330        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2331
2332    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2333        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2335
2336    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2337        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2338            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2339        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2340
2341    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2342        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2343
2344    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2346        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2347        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2348        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2349        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2350
2351    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2354        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2355        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2356        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2357        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2358        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2359        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2360        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2361
2362    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2363        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2364        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2365        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2366        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2367
2368        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2369            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2370
2371        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2372
2373    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2374        return "BEGIN"
2375
2376    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2377        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2378        if chain is not None:
2379            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2380
2381        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2382
2383    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2384        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2385        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2386        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2387
2388    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2389        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2390
2391        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2392        if dtype:
2393            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2394            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2395            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2396            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2397            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2398
2399        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2400        if default:
2401            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2402
2403        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2404            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2405
2406        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2407
2408    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2409        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2410            # Remove db from tables
2411            expression = expression.transform(
2412                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2413            )
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2416
2417    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2418        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2419
2420        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2421            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2422                actions = self.expressions(
2423                    expression,
2424                    key="actions",
2425                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2426                )
2427            else:
2428                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2429        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2430            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2431        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2432            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2433        else:
2434            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2435
2436        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2437        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2438        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2439
2440    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2441        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2442        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2443        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2444
2445    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2448        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2449
2450        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2451        if enforced is not None:
2452            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2453
2454        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2455
2456    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2457        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2459
2460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2462        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2463
2464    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2465        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2466
2467    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2468        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2469
2470    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2471        return self.sql(
2472            exp.Cast(
2473                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2474                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2475            )
2476        )
2477
2478    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2479        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2480
2481    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2482        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2483            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2484        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2485
2486    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2487        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2488
2489    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2490        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2491
2492    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2493        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2494
2495    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2496        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2497
2498    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2499        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2500
2501    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2502        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2503
2504    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2506
2507    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2508        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2509
2510    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2511        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2512
2513    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2515
2516    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2517        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2518
2519    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2520        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2521            return self.sql(
2522                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2523            )
2524        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2525
2526    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2527        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2528
2529    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2530        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2531
2532    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2533        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2534
2535    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2536        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2537
2538    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2539        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2540
2541    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2542        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2543
2544    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2545        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2546
2547    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2548        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2549
2550    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2551        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2552
2553    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2554        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2555
2556    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2557        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2558
2559    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2560        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2561
2562    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2563        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2564
2565    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2566        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2567
2568    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2569        args = list(expression.args.values())
2570        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2571            args.reverse()
2572        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2573
2574    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2575        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2576        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2578        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2579        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2580
2581    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2582        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2583        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2584
2585    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2586        args = []
2587
2588        for key in expression.arg_types:
2589            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2590
2591            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2592                for value in arg_value:
2593                    args.append(value)
2594            elif arg_value is not None:
2595                args.append(arg_value)
2596
2597        if self.normalize_functions:
2598            name = expression.sql_name()
2599        else:
2600            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2601
2602        return self.func(name, *args)
2603
2604    def func(
2605        self,
2606        name: str,
2607        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2608        prefix: str = "(",
2609        suffix: str = ")",
2610    ) -> str:
2611        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2612
2613    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2614        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2615        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2616            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2617        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2618
2619    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2620        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2621
2622    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2623        return format_time(
2624            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2625        )
2626
2627    def expressions(
2628        self,
2629        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2630        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2631        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2632        flat: bool = False,
2633        indent: bool = True,
2634        skip_first: bool = False,
2635        sep: str = ", ",
2636        prefix: str = "",
2637    ) -> str:
2638        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2639
2640        if not expressions:
2641            return ""
2642
2643        if flat:
2644            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2645
2646        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2647
2648        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2649        pad = " " * self.pad
2650        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2651
2652        result_sqls = []
2653        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2654            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2655            if not sql:
2656                continue
2657
2658            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2659
2660            if self.pretty:
2661                if self.leading_comma:
2662                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2663                else:
2664                    result_sqls.append(
2665                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2666                    )
2667            else:
2668                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2669
2670        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2671        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2672
2673    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2674        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2675        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2676        if flat:
2677            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2678        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2679
2680    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2681        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2682        if not property_name:
2683            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2684        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2685
2686    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2688        op = self.seg(op)
2689        return self.query_modifiers(
2690            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2691        )
2692
2693    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2694        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2695
2696    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2697        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2698
2699    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2702        expressions = (
2703            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2704        )
2705        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2706
2707    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2711
2712    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2713        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2714
2715    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2716        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2717        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2718        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2719        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2720
2721        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2722        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2723            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2724            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2725                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2726        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2727            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2728                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2729            else:
2730                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2731        else:
2732            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2733        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2734
2735    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2736        table = expression.this
2737        table_alias = ""
2738
2739        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2740        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2741            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2742            table = table.copy()
2743            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2744
2745        this = self.sql(table)
2746        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2747        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2749
2750        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2751
2752    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2753        if expression.args.get("format"):
2754            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2755
2756        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2757
2758    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2761        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2762        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2763        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2764
2765    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2768        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2769        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2770
2771    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2772        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2773
2774    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2775        return ""
2776
2777    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2778        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2779        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2780        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2781        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2782        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2783
2784    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2787
2788        if having:
2789            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2790
2791        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2792
2793    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2794        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2795        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2796        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2797        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2798        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2799        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2800        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2801        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2802        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2803        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2804        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2805        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2806        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2807
2808    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2809        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2810        if key_block_size:
2811            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2812
2813        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2814        if using:
2815            return f"USING {using}"
2816
2817        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2818        if parser:
2819            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2820
2821        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2822        if comment:
2823            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2824
2825        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2826        if visible is not None:
2827            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2828
2829        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2830        if engine_attr:
2831            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2832
2833        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2834        if secondary_engine_attr:
2835            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2836
2837        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2838        return ""
2839
2840    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2841        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2842        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2844        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2845        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2846        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2847        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2848        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2849        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2850        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2851        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2852
2853    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2854        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2855            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2856
2857        case = exp.Case().when(
2858            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2859            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2860            copy=False,
2861        )
2862        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2863        if else_cond:
2864            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2865
2866        return self.sql(case)
2867
2868    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2871        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2872        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2873        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2874        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2875
2876    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2878
2879    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2880        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
394    def __init__(
395        self,
396        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
397        identify: str | bool = False,
398        normalize: bool = False,
399        pad: int = 2,
400        indent: int = 2,
401        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
402        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
403        max_unsupported: int = 3,
404        leading_comma: bool = False,
405        max_text_width: int = 80,
406        comments: bool = True,
407    ):
408        import sqlglot
409
410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
411        self.identify = identify
412        self.normalize = normalize
413        self.pad = pad
414        self._indent = indent
415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
419        self.comments = comments
420
421        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
422        self.normalize_functions = (
423            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
424        )
425
426        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
427        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
428        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
429            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
430        )
431        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
272    @classmethod
273    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
274        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
275
276        Args:
277            text: The text to check.
278            identify:
279                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
280                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
281
282        Returns:
283            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
284        """
285        if identify is True or identify == "always":
286            return True
287
288        if identify == "safe":
289            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
290
291        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
433    def generate(
434        self,
435        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
436        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
437    ) -> str:
438        """
439        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
440
441        Args:
442            expression: The syntax tree.
443            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
444                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
445
446        Returns:
447            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
448        """
449        if cache is not None:
450            self._cache = cache
451
452        self.unsupported_messages = []
453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
454        self._cache = None
455
456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
457            return sql
458
459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
461                logger.warning(msg)
462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
464
465        if self.pretty:
466            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
467        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
469    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
470        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
471            raise UnsupportedError(message)
472        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
474    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
475        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
477    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
478        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
480    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
481        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
482        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
483        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
485    def maybe_comment(
486        self,
487        sql: str,
488        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
489        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
490    ) -> str:
491        comments = (
492            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
493            if self.comments
494            else None
495        )
496
497        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
498            return sql
499
500        comments_sql = " ".join(
501            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
502        )
503
504        if not comments_sql:
505            return sql
506
507        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
508            return (
509                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
510                if sql[0].isspace()
511                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
512            )
513
514        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
516    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
517        this_sql = self.indent(
518            self.sql(expression)
519            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
520            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
521            level=1,
522            pad=0,
523        )
524        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
526    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
527        original = self.identify
528        self.identify = False
529        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
530        self.identify = original
531        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
533    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
534        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
535            return name.upper()
536        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
537            return name.lower()
538        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
540    def indent(
541        self,
542        sql: str,
543        level: int = 0,
544        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
545        skip_first: bool = False,
546        skip_last: bool = False,
547    ) -> str:
548        if not self.pretty:
549            return sql
550
551        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
552        lines = sql.split("\n")
553
554        return "\n".join(
555            line
556            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
557            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
558            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
559        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
561    def sql(
562        self,
563        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
564        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
565        comment: bool = True,
566    ) -> str:
567        if not expression:
568            return ""
569
570        if isinstance(expression, str):
571            return expression
572
573        if key:
574            value = expression.args.get(key)
575            if value:
576                return self.sql(value)
577            return ""
578
579        if self._cache is not None:
580            expression_id = hash(expression)
581
582            if expression_id in self._cache:
583                return self._cache[expression_id]
584
585        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
586
587        if callable(transform):
588            sql = transform(self, expression)
589        elif transform:
590            sql = transform
591        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
592            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
593
594            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
595                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
596            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
597                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
598            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
599                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
600            else:
601                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
602        else:
603            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
604
605        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
606
607        if self._cache is not None:
608            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
609        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
611    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
612        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
613        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
614        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
616    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
617        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
619        options = expression.args.get("options")
620        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
621        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
622        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
623        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
626    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
627        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
628            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
629        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
630        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
632    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
633        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
634
635        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
636            join_mark = ""
637            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
638
639        column = ".".join(
640            self.sql(part)
641            for part in (
642                expression.args.get("catalog"),
643                expression.args.get("db"),
644                expression.args.get("table"),
645                expression.args.get("this"),
646            )
647            if part
648        )
649
650        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
652    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
655        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
656        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
658    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
659        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
661        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
662        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
663        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
664        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
665        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
666        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
667
668        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
669            kind = ""
670
671        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
673    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
675        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
676        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
678    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
680        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
681            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
682        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
683            persisted = " PERSISTED"
684        else:
685            persisted = ""
686        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
688    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
689        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
691    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
693            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
694        else:
695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
696
697        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
699    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
700        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
701    ) -> str:
702        this = ""
703        if expression.this is not None:
704            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
705            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
706
707        start = expression.args.get("start")
708        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
709        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
710        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
711        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
712        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
713        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
714        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
715        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
716        cycle_sql = ""
717
718        if cycle is not None:
719            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
720            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
721
722        sequence_opts = ""
723        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
724            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
725            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
726
727        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
728        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
729
730        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
732    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
733        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
735    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
736        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
737        if desc is not None:
738            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
739        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
741    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
743        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
744        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
745        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
746        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
748    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
749        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
751    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
753        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
754        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
755
756        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
757
758        properties_sql = ""
759        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
760            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
761        ):
762            properties_sql = self.sql(
763                exp.Properties(
764                    expressions=[
765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
766                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
767                    ]
768                )
769            )
770
771        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
772        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
773        if expression_sql:
774            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
775
776            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
777                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
778                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
779                        exp.Properties(
780                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
781                        ),
782                        wrapped=False,
783                    )
784                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
785                else:
786                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
787
788        postindex_props_sql = ""
789        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
790            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
791                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
792                wrapped=False,
793                prefix=" ",
794            )
795
796        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
797        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
798        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
799
800        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
801        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
802
803        postcreate_props_sql = ""
804        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
805            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
806                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
807                sep=" ",
808                prefix=" ",
809                wrapped=False,
810            )
811
812        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
813
814        postexpression_props_sql = ""
815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
816            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
817                exp.Properties(
818                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
819                ),
820                sep=" ",
821                prefix=" ",
822                wrapped=False,
823            )
824
825        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
826        no_schema_binding = (
827            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
828        )
829
830        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
831        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
832
833        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
834        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
836    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
838        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
839        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
840        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
841        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
842
843        if when:
844            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
845            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
846            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
847
848        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
850    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
851        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
853    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
854        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
855        if with_:
856            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
857        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
859    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
860        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
861        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
862
863        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
865    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
866        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
867        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
869    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
870        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
871        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
872        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
873        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
875    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
877        if self.BIT_START:
878            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
879        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
881    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
883        if self.HEX_START:
884            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
885        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
887    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
889        if self.BYTE_START:
890            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
891        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
893    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
894        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
895        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
897    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
899        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
900        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
901        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
903    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
904        type_value = expression.this
905
906        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
907            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
908        else:
909            type_sql = (
910                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
911                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
912                else type_value
913            )
914
915        nested = ""
916        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
917        values = ""
918
919        if interior:
920            if expression.args.get("nested"):
921                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
922                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
923                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
924                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
925                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
926            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
927                nested = f" {interior}"
928            else:
929                nested = f"({interior})"
930
931        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
932        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
933            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
934            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
935        ):
936            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
937
938        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
940    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
941        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
942        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
943        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
944        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
946    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
949        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
950        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
951        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
952        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
953        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
954        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
955        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
956        if self.RETURNING_END:
957            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
958        else:
959            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
960        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
962    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
964        kind = expression.args["kind"]
965        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
966        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
967        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
968        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
969        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
970        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
971        return (
972            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
973        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
975    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
976        return self.prepend_ctes(
977            expression,
978            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
979        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
981    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
982        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
984    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
985        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
986        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
987        count = expression.args.get("count")
988        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
989        if expression.args.get("percent"):
990            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
991        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
992        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
 994    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 995        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 996            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 997            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 998            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 999
1000        agg = expression.this.copy()
1001        agg_arg = agg.this
1002        cond = expression.expression.this
1003        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1004        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1006    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1007        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1008            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1009            return ""
1010
1011        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1013    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1014        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1015        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1016        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1017        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1018        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1019        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1020        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1021        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1022        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1023        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1024        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1025        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1026        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1027        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1028        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1029        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1031    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1032        text = expression.name
1033        lower = text.lower()
1034        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1035        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1036        if (
1037            expression.quoted
1038            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1039            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1040            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1041        ):
1042            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1043        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1045    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1046        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1047        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1048        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1049        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1050        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1052    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1053        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1054        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1056    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1057        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1059    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1060        root_properties = []
1061        with_properties = []
1062
1063        for p in expression.expressions:
1064            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1065            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1066                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1067            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1068                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1069
1070        return self.root_properties(
1071            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1072        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1074    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1075        if properties.expressions:
1076            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1077        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1079    def properties(
1080        self,
1081        properties: exp.Properties,
1082        prefix: str = "",
1083        sep: str = ", ",
1084        suffix: str = "",
1085        wrapped: bool = True,
1086    ) -> str:
1087        if properties.expressions:
1088            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1089            if expressions:
1090                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1091                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1092        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1094    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1095        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1097    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1098        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1099        for p in properties.expressions:
1100            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1101            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1102                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1103            else:
1104                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1105
1106        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1108    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1109        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1110            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1113    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1114        property_cls = expression.__class__
1115        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1116            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1117
1118        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1119        if not property_name:
1120            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1121
1122        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1124    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1125        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1126        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1127        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1129    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1130        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1131        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1132        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1134    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1135        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1136        local = expression.args.get("local")
1137        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1138        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1139        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1140        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1141        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1143    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1144        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1146        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1148    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1149        if expression.args.get("default"):
1150            property = "DEFAULT"
1151        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1152            property = "ON"
1153        else:
1154            property = "OFF"
1155        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1157    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1158        if expression.args.get("no"):
1159            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1160        if expression.args.get("default"):
1161            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1162
1163        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1164        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1166    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1167        default = expression.args.get("default")
1168        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1169        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1170        if default or minimum or maximum:
1171            if default:
1172                prop = "DEFAULT"
1173            elif minimum:
1174                prop = "MINIMUM"
1175            else:
1176                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1177            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1178        units = expression.args.get("units")
1179        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1180        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1182    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1183        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1184        always = expression.args.get("always")
1185        default = expression.args.get("default")
1186        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1187        never = expression.args.get("never")
1188
1189        if autotemp is not None:
1190            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1191        elif always:
1192            prop = "ALWAYS"
1193        elif default:
1194            prop = "DEFAULT"
1195        elif manual:
1196            prop = "MANUAL"
1197        elif never:
1198            prop = "NEVER"
1199        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1201    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1202        no = expression.args.get("no")
1203        no = " NO" if no else ""
1204        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1205        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1206
1207        for_ = ""
1208        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1209            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1210        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1211            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1212        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1213            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1214        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1216    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1217        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1218        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1219        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1220        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1221        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1222        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1224    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1225        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1226        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1227        statistics_sql = ""
1228        if statistics is not None:
1229            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1230        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1232    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1233        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1234
1235        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1236            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1237        else:
1238            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1239
1240        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1241        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1242        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1243
1244        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1245
1246        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1247        partition_sql = (
1248            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1249        )
1250        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1251        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1252        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1253        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1254        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1255        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1256
1257        if self.RETURNING_END:
1258            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1259        else:
1260            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1261
1262        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1263        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1265    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1266        return self.prepend_ctes(
1267            expression,
1268            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1269        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1271    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1272        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1274    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1275        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1277    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1278        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1282        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1284    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1285        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1287    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1288        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1290    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1291        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1292        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1293        if constraint:
1294            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1295        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1296        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1297        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1298        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1299        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1300        if expressions:
1301            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1302        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1304    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1305        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1307    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1308        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1309        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1310        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1311        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1312        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1313        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1314        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1315        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1316        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1317        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1318        null = expression.args.get("null")
1319        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1320        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1322    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1323        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1325    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1326        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1327        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1328        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1329        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1331    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1332        table = ".".join(
1333            part
1334            for part in [
1335                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1336                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1337                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1338            ]
1339            if part
1340        )
1341
1342        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1343        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1344        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1345        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1346        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1347        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1348        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1349        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1350        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1351        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1352        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1353        if file_format:
1354            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1355            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1356            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1357
1358        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1360    def tablesample_sql(
1361        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1362    ) -> str:
1363        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1364            table = expression.this.copy()
1365            table.set("alias", None)
1366            this = self.sql(table)
1367            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1368        else:
1369            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370            alias = ""
1371
1372        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1373        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1374        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1375        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1376        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1377        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1378        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1379        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1380        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1381        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1382        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1383
1384        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1385        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1386            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1387
1388        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1389        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1390        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1391
1392        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1393        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1394            expr = f"({expr})"
1395
1396        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1398    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1400
1401        if expression.this:
1402            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1404            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1405            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1406            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1407            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1408
1409        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1410        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1411        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1412        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1413        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1414        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1415        if include_nulls is not None:
1416            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1417        else:
1418            nulls = ""
1419        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1421    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1422        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1423        kind = expression.text("kind")
1424        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1425        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1427    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1428        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1430    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1433        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1434        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1435        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1436        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1437        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1438        if self.RETURNING_END:
1439            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1440        else:
1441            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1442        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1443        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1445    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1446        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1447        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1448            args = self.expressions(expression)
1449            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1450            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1451            values = (
1452                f"({values})"
1453                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1454                else values
1455            )
1456            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1457
1458        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1459        expression = expression.copy()
1460        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1461        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1462
1463        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1464
1465        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1466            row = tup.expressions
1467
1468            if i == 0 and column_names:
1469                row = [
1470                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1471                ]
1472
1473            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1474
1475        if self.pretty:
1476            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1477            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1478            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1479            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1480            return self.subquery_sql(
1481                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1482            )
1483
1484        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1485        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1486        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1488    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1489        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1491    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1492        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1493        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1494        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1496    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1497        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1499    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1500        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1501
1502        if expression.args.get("all"):
1503            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1504
1505        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1506        grouping_sets = (
1507            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1508        )
1509
1510        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1511        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1512            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1513        else:
1514            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1515            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1516
1517        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1518        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1519            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1520        else:
1521            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1522            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1523
1524        groupings = csv(
1525            grouping_sets,
1526            cube_sql,
1527            rollup_sql,
1528            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1529            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1530        )
1531
1532        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1533            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1534
1535        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1537    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1538        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1539        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1541    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1542        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1543        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1544        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1545        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1546        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1548    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1549        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1551    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1552        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1553            side = None
1554        else:
1555            side = expression.side
1556
1557        op_sql = " ".join(
1558            op
1559            for op in (
1560                expression.method,
1561                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1562                side,
1563                expression.kind,
1564                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1565            )
1566            if op
1567        )
1568        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1569        using = expression.args.get("using")
1570
1571        if not on_sql and using:
1572            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1573
1574        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1575
1576        if on_sql:
1577            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1578            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1579            if using:
1580                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1581            else:
1582                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1583        elif not op_sql:
1584            return f", {this_sql}"
1585
1586        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1587        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1589    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1590        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1591        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1592        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1594    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1596
1597        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1598            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1599
1600        if expression.args.get("view"):
1601            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1602            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1603            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1604            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1605            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1606            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1607
1608        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1609        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1610        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1612    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        args = ", ".join(
1615            sql
1616            for sql in (
1617                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1618                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1619            )
1620            if sql
1621        )
1622        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1624    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1626        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1628    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1630        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1632        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1633        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1634        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1635        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1636        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1638    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1639        expressions = (
1640            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1641        )
1642        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1643        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1645    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1646        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1648    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1649        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1650            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1651            return ""
1652
1653        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1654        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1655        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1656        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1657
1658        if wait is not None:
1659            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1660                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1661            else:
1662                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1663
1664        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1666    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1667        text = expression.this or ""
1668        if expression.is_string:
1669            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1670        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1672    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1673        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1674        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1675            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1676        elif self.pretty:
1677            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1678        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1680    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1681        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1682        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1683        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1684        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1685        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1686        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1687        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1688        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1689        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1690        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1691        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1693    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1694        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1696    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1697        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1699    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1702        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1704    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1705        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1707    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1708        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1710    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1711        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1713    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1714        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1715        asc = not desc
1716
1717        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1718        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1719        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1720        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1721        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1722
1723        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1724        nulls_sort_change = ""
1725        if nulls_first and (
1726            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1727        ):
1728            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1729        elif (
1730            nulls_last
1731            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1732            and not nulls_are_last
1733        ):
1734            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1735
1736        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1737            self.unsupported(
1738                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1739            )
1740            nulls_sort_change = ""
1741
1742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1744    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1745        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1746        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1747        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1748        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1749        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1750        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1751        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1752        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1753        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1754        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1755        definition_sqls = [
1756            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1757            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1758        ]
1759        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1760        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1761        body = "".join(
1762            (
1763                partition,
1764                order,
1765                measures,
1766                rows,
1767                after,
1768                pattern,
1769                define,
1770            )
1771        )
1772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1773        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1774        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1776    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1777        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1778
1779        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1780        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1781
1782        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1783            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1784        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1785            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1786
1787        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1788
1789        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1790            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1791            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1792            else []
1793        )
1794
1795        return csv(
1796            *sqls,
1797            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1798            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1799            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1800            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1801            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1802            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1803            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1804            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1805            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1806            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1807            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1808            sep="",
1809        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1811    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1812        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1813    ) -> t.List[str]:
1814        return [
1815            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1816            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1817        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1819    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1820        return [
1821            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1822            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1823            if expression.args.get("windows")
1824            else "",
1825            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1826            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1827            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1828        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1830    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1831        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1832        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1833        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1835    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1836        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1837        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1838        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1839        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1840        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1841        top = (
1842            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1843            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1844            else ""
1845        )
1846
1847        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1848
1849        if kind:
1850            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1851                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1852            else:
1853                if kind == "STRUCT":
1854                    expressions = self.expressions(
1855                        sqls=[
1856                            self.sql(
1857                                exp.Struct(
1858                                    expressions=[
1859                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1860                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1861                                        )
1862                                        for e in expression.expressions
1863                                    ]
1864                                )
1865                            )
1866                        ]
1867                    )
1868                kind = ""
1869
1870        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1871        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1872            expression,
1873            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1874            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1875            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1876        )
1877        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1879    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1882        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1883        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1885    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1886        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1888    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1889        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1890        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1891        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1892        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1893        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1895    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1899    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1901        kind = expression.text("kind")
1902        if kind:
1903            kind = f"{kind}."
1904        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1906    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1907        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1909    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1910        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1911        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1912
1913        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1914        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1915
1916        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1917        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1919    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1920        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1921        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1923    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1924        return self.prepend_ctes(
1925            expression,
1926            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1927        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1929    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1930        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1931        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1932        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1933        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1935    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1936        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1937
1938        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1939        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1940
1941        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1942            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1943                alias = alias.copy()
1944                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1945
1946        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1947            columns = alias.columns
1948            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1949        else:
1950            alias = self.sql(alias)
1951
1952        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1953        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1954            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1955        else:
1956            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1957                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1958            elif offset:
1959                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1960            else:
1961                suffix = alias
1962
1963        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1965    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1966        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1967        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1969    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1972        order = expression.args.get("order")
1973        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1974        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1975        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1976        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1977
1978        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1979
1980        first = expression.args.get("first")
1981        if first is None:
1982            first = ""
1983        else:
1984            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1985
1986        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1987            return f"{this} {alias}"
1988
1989        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1990        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1992    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1993        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1994        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1996    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1998        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1999        end = (
2000            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2001            or "CURRENT ROW"
2002        )
2003        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2005    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2007        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2008        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2010    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2013        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2014        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2016    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2017        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2018        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2019
2020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2022    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2023        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2025    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2026        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2028    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2031            this = self.wrap(this)
2032        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2034    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2035        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2037    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2040
2041        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2042            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2043            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2044
2045        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2046
2047        if default:
2048            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2049
2050        statements.append("END")
2051
2052        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2053            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2054
2055        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2057    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2062    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2063        order = expression.args.get("order")
2064        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2065        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2067    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2069        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2070        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2072    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2073        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2074
2075        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2076            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2077        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2078            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2079        else:
2080            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2082    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2083        expressions = expression.expressions
2084        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2085            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2086        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2088    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2090        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2092    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2095        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2096        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2097        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2098        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2099        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2100        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2102    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2104        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2105        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2106        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2108    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2109        expression = expression.copy()
2110        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2112    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2113        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2114        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2115        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2117    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2118        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2120    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2123    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2124        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2125        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2126        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2127        if unique_keys is not None:
2128            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2129        else:
2130            unique_keys = ""
2131        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2132        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2133        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2134        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2135        return self.func(
2136            "JSON_OBJECT",
2137            *expression.expressions,
2138            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2139        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2141    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2142        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2143        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2144        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2145        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2146        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2147        return self.func(
2148            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2149        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2151    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2154        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2155        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2156        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2157        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2158        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2159        return self.func(
2160            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2161            this,
2162            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2163        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2165    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2167        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2168        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2169        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2170        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2171        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2173    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2176        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2177        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2178        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2179        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2180        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2181        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2182        return self.func(
2183            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2184        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2186    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2189        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2190        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2191        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2192        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2194    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2196        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2197        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2199        with_ = (
2200            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2201            if expressions
2202            else ""
2203        )
2204        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2206    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2207        query = expression.args.get("query")
2208        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2209        field = expression.args.get("field")
2210        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2211
2212        if query:
2213            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2214        elif unnest:
2215            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2216        elif field:
2217            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2218        else:
2219            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2220
2221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2223    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2224        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2226    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2227        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2228        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2229            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2230        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2231
2232        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2233            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2234            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2235
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        if this:
2238            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2239            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2240
2241        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2243    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2244        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2246    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2249        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2250        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2251        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2252        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2254    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2255        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2257    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2258        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2259            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2260        else:
2261            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2262            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2263
2264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2266    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2267        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2268        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2270        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2272    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2273        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2275    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2277        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2278        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2280    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2283    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2286        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2288    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2291    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2292        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2294    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2295        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2297    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2298        if not self.pretty:
2299            return self.binary(expression, op)
2300
2301        sqls = tuple(
2302            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2303            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2304        )
2305
2306        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2307        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2309    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2312    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2315    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2316        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2318    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2321    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2324    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2327    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2328        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2329        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2330        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2332    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2333        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2336    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2337        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2338            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2339        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2341    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2342        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2344    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2346        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2347        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2348        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2349        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2351    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2354        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2355        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2356        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2357        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2358        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2359        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2360        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2362    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2363        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2364        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2365        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2366        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2367
2368        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2369            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2370
2371        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2373    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2374        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2376    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2377        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2378        if chain is not None:
2379            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2380
2381        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2383    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2384        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2385        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2386        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2388    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2389        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2390
2391        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2392        if dtype:
2393            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2394            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2395            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2396            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2397            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2398
2399        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2400        if default:
2401            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2402
2403        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2404            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2405
2406        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2408    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2409        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2410            # Remove db from tables
2411            expression = expression.transform(
2412                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2413            )
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2417    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2418        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2419
2420        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2421            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2422                actions = self.expressions(
2423                    expression,
2424                    key="actions",
2425                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2426                )
2427            else:
2428                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2429        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2430            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2431        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2432            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2433        else:
2434            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2435
2436        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2437        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2438        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2440    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2441        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2442        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2443        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2445    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2448        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2449
2450        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2451        if enforced is not None:
2452            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2453
2454        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2456    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2457        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2459
2460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2462        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2464    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2465        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2467    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2468        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2470    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2471        return self.sql(
2472            exp.Cast(
2473                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2474                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2475            )
2476        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2478    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2479        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2481    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2482        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2483            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2484        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2486    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2487        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2489    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2490        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2492    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2493        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2495    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2496        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2498    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2499        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2501    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2502        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2504    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2507    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2508        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2510    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2511        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2513    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2516    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2517        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2519    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2520        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2521            return self.sql(
2522                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2523            )
2524        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2526    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2527        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2529    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2530        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2532    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2533        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2535    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2536        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2538    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2539        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2541    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2542        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2544    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2545        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2547    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2548        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2550    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2551        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2553    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2554        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2556    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2557        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2559    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2560        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2562    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2563        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2565    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2566        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2568    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2569        args = list(expression.args.values())
2570        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2571            args.reverse()
2572        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2574    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2575        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2576        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2578        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2579        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2581    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2582        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2583        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2585    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2586        args = []
2587
2588        for key in expression.arg_types:
2589            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2590
2591            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2592                for value in arg_value:
2593                    args.append(value)
2594            elif arg_value is not None:
2595                args.append(arg_value)
2596
2597        if self.normalize_functions:
2598            name = expression.sql_name()
2599        else:
2600            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2601
2602        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2604    def func(
2605        self,
2606        name: str,
2607        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2608        prefix: str = "(",
2609        suffix: str = ")",
2610    ) -> str:
2611        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2613    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2614        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2615        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2616            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2617        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2619    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2620        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2622    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2623        return format_time(
2624            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2625        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2627    def expressions(
2628        self,
2629        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2630        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2631        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2632        flat: bool = False,
2633        indent: bool = True,
2634        skip_first: bool = False,
2635        sep: str = ", ",
2636        prefix: str = "",
2637    ) -> str:
2638        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2639
2640        if not expressions:
2641            return ""
2642
2643        if flat:
2644            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2645
2646        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2647
2648        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2649        pad = " " * self.pad
2650        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2651
2652        result_sqls = []
2653        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2654            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2655            if not sql:
2656                continue
2657
2658            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2659
2660            if self.pretty:
2661                if self.leading_comma:
2662                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2663                else:
2664                    result_sqls.append(
2665                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2666                    )
2667            else:
2668                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2669
2670        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2671        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2673    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2674        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2675        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2676        if flat:
2677            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2678        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2680    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2681        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2682        if not property_name:
2683            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2684        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2686    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2688        op = self.seg(op)
2689        return self.query_modifiers(
2690            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2691        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2693    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2694        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2696    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2697        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2699    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2702        expressions = (
2703            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2704        )
2705        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2707    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2712    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2713        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2715    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2716        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2717        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2718        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2719        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2720
2721        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2722        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2723            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2724            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2725                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2726        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2727            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2728                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2729            else:
2730                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2731        else:
2732            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2733        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2735    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2736        table = expression.this
2737        table_alias = ""
2738
2739        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2740        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2741            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2742            table = table.copy()
2743            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2744
2745        this = self.sql(table)
2746        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2747        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2749
2750        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2752    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2753        if expression.args.get("format"):
2754            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2755
2756        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2758    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2761        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2762        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2763        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2765    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2768        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2769        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2771    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2772        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2774    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2775        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2777    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2778        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2779        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2780        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2781        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2782        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2784    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2787
2788        if having:
2789            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2790
2791        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2793    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2794        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2795        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2796        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2797        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2798        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2799        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2800        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2801        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2802        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2803        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2804        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2805        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2806        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2808    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2809        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2810        if key_block_size:
2811            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2812
2813        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2814        if using:
2815            return f"USING {using}"
2816
2817        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2818        if parser:
2819            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2820
2821        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2822        if comment:
2823            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2824
2825        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2826        if visible is not None:
2827            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2828
2829        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2830        if engine_attr:
2831            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2832
2833        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2834        if secondary_engine_attr:
2835            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2836
2837        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2838        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2840    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2841        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2842        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2844        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2845        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2846        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2847        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2848        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2849        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2850        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2851        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2853    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2854        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2855            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2856
2857        case = exp.Case().when(
2858            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2859            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2860            copy=False,
2861        )
2862        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2863        if else_cond:
2864            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2865
2866        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2868    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2871        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2872        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2873        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2874        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2876    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
2879    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2880        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2883def cached_generator(
2884    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2885) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2886    """Returns a cached generator."""
2887    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2888    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2889    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.