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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.time import format_time
  13from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  14
  15if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  16    from sqlglot._typing import E
  17    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  18
  19logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  20
  21ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  22
  23
  24class Generator:
  25    """
  26    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  27
  28    Args:
  29        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  30            Default: False.
  31        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  32            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  33            True or 'always': Always quote.
  34            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  35        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  36            Default: False.
  37        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  40            Default: 2.
  41        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  42            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  43            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  44            False: Disables function name normalization.
  45        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  46            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  48            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  49            Default: 3
  50        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  51            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  52            Default: False
  53        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  54            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  55            line length.
  56            Default: 80
  57        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  58            Default: True
  59    """
  60
  61    TRANSFORMS = {
  62        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  73        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  80        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  83        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  86        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  87        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  88        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  90        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  91        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  99        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 100        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 101        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 102        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 103        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 104        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 105        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 106        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 108        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 109        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 110        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 111    }
 112
 113    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 114    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 117    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 118
 119    # Always do union distinct or union all
 120    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 121
 122    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 123    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 126    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 129    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 132    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 135    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 136
 137    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 138    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 139
 140    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 141    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 142
 143    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 144    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 145
 146    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 147    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 148
 149    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 150    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 151
 152    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 153    JOIN_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 156    TABLE_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 159    QUERY_HINTS = True
 160
 161    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 162    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 163
 164    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 165    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 166
 167    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 168    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 171    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 174    RETURNING_END = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 177    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 180    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 181
 182    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 183    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 184
 185    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 186    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 187
 188    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 189    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 190
 191    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 192    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 193    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 194    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 195
 196    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 197    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 198
 199    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 200    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 201
 202    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 203    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 206    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 209    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 212    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 215    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 218    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 219
 220    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 221    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 222
 223    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 224    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 225
 226    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 227    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 228
 229    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 230    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 231
 232    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 233    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 234
 235    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 236    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 237
 238    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 239    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 240
 241    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 242    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 243
 244    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 245    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 246
 247    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 248        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 255        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 256        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 257    }
 258
 259    STAR_MAPPING = {
 260        "except": "EXCEPT",
 261        "replace": "REPLACE",
 262    }
 263
 264    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 265        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 266        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 267        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 268        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 269        "DAYS": "DAY",
 270        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 271        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 272        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 273        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 274    }
 275
 276    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 277
 278    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 279
 280    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 281
 282    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 283        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 284        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 287        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 295        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 302        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 303        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 304        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 306        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 308        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 309        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 313        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 314        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 315        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 316        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 317        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 319        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 322        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 325        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 337        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 338        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 340        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 342        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 343        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 345        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 346        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 347        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 348    }
 349
 350    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 351    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 352
 353    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 354    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 355        exp.Create,
 356        exp.Delete,
 357        exp.Drop,
 358        exp.From,
 359        exp.Insert,
 360        exp.Join,
 361        exp.Select,
 362        exp.Update,
 363        exp.Where,
 364        exp.With,
 365    )
 366
 367    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 368    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 369        exp.Binary,
 370        exp.Union,
 371    )
 372
 373    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 374    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 375        exp.Column,
 376        exp.Literal,
 377        exp.Neg,
 378        exp.Paren,
 379    )
 380
 381    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 382    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 383
 384    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 385
 386    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 387
 388    __slots__ = (
 389        "pretty",
 390        "identify",
 391        "normalize",
 392        "pad",
 393        "_indent",
 394        "normalize_functions",
 395        "unsupported_level",
 396        "max_unsupported",
 397        "leading_comma",
 398        "max_text_width",
 399        "comments",
 400        "dialect",
 401        "unsupported_messages",
 402        "_escaped_quote_end",
 403        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 404    )
 405
 406    def __init__(
 407        self,
 408        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 409        identify: str | bool = False,
 410        normalize: bool = False,
 411        pad: int = 2,
 412        indent: int = 2,
 413        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 414        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 415        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 416        leading_comma: bool = False,
 417        max_text_width: int = 80,
 418        comments: bool = True,
 419        dialect: DialectType = None,
 420    ):
 421        import sqlglot
 422        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 423
 424        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 425        self.identify = identify
 426        self.normalize = normalize
 427        self.pad = pad
 428        self._indent = indent
 429        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 430        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 431        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 432        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 433        self.comments = comments
 434        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 435
 436        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 437        self.normalize_functions = (
 438            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 439        )
 440
 441        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 442        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 443            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 444        )
 445        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 446            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 447        )
 448
 449    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 450        """
 451        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 452
 453        Args:
 454            expression: The syntax tree.
 455            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 456                it is safer to copy.
 457
 458        Returns:
 459            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 460        """
 461        if copy:
 462            expression = expression.copy()
 463
 464        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 465
 466        self.unsupported_messages = []
 467        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 468
 469        if self.pretty:
 470            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 471
 472        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 473            return sql
 474
 475        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 476            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 477                logger.warning(msg)
 478        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 479            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 480
 481        return sql
 482
 483    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 484        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 485        if (
 486            not expression.parent
 487            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 488            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 489        ):
 490            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 491
 492            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 493
 494        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 495            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 496
 497            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 498
 499        return expression
 500
 501    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 502        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 503            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 504        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 505
 506    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 507        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 508
 509    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 510        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 511
 512    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 513        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 514        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 515        return comment
 516
 517    def maybe_comment(
 518        self,
 519        sql: str,
 520        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 521        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 522    ) -> str:
 523        comments = (
 524            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 525            if self.comments
 526            else None
 527        )
 528
 529        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 530            return sql
 531
 532        comments_sql = " ".join(
 533            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 534        )
 535
 536        if not comments_sql:
 537            return sql
 538
 539        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 540            return (
 541                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 542                if sql[0].isspace()
 543                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 544            )
 545
 546        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 547
 548    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 549        this_sql = self.indent(
 550            self.sql(expression)
 551            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 552            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 553            level=1,
 554            pad=0,
 555        )
 556        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 557
 558    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 559        original = self.identify
 560        self.identify = False
 561        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 562        self.identify = original
 563        return result
 564
 565    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 566        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 567            return name.upper()
 568        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 569            return name.lower()
 570        return name
 571
 572    def indent(
 573        self,
 574        sql: str,
 575        level: int = 0,
 576        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 577        skip_first: bool = False,
 578        skip_last: bool = False,
 579    ) -> str:
 580        if not self.pretty:
 581            return sql
 582
 583        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 584        lines = sql.split("\n")
 585
 586        return "\n".join(
 587            line
 588            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 589            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 590            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 591        )
 592
 593    def sql(
 594        self,
 595        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 596        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 597        comment: bool = True,
 598    ) -> str:
 599        if not expression:
 600            return ""
 601
 602        if isinstance(expression, str):
 603            return expression
 604
 605        if key:
 606            value = expression.args.get(key)
 607            if value:
 608                return self.sql(value)
 609            return ""
 610
 611        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 612
 613        if callable(transform):
 614            sql = transform(self, expression)
 615        elif transform:
 616            sql = transform
 617        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 618            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 619
 620            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 621                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 622            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 623                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 624            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 625                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 626            else:
 627                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 628        else:
 629            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 630
 631        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 632
 633    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 634        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 636        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 637
 638    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 639        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 640        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641        options = expression.args.get("options")
 642        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 643        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 644        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 645        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 646        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 647
 648    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 649        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 650            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 651        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 652        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 653
 654    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 655        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 656
 657        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 658            join_mark = ""
 659            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 660
 661        column = ".".join(
 662            self.sql(part)
 663            for part in (
 664                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 665                expression.args.get("db"),
 666                expression.args.get("table"),
 667                expression.args.get("this"),
 668            )
 669            if part
 670        )
 671
 672        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 673
 674    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 676        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 677        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 678        return f"{position}{this}"
 679
 680    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 681        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 682        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 683        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 684        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 685        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 686        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 687        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 688        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 689
 690        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 691            kind = ""
 692
 693        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 694
 695    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 697        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 698        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 699
 700    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 702        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 703            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 704        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 705            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 706        else:
 707            persisted = ""
 708        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 709
 710    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 711        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 712
 713    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 714        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 715            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 716        else:
 717            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 718
 719        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 720
 721    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 722        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 723    ) -> str:
 724        this = ""
 725        if expression.this is not None:
 726            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 727            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 728
 729        start = expression.args.get("start")
 730        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 731        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 732        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 733        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 734        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 735        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 736        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 737        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 738        cycle_sql = ""
 739
 740        if cycle is not None:
 741            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 742            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 743
 744        sequence_opts = ""
 745        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 746            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 747            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 748
 749        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 750        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 751
 752        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 753
 754    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 755        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 756    ) -> str:
 757        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 758        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 759        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 760
 761    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 762        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 763    ) -> str:
 764        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 765
 766    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 767        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 768
 769    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 770        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 771
 772    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 773        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 774        if desc is not None:
 775            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 776        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 777
 778    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 781        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 782        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 783        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 784
 785    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 786        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 787
 788    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 790        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 791        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 792
 793        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 794
 795        properties_sql = ""
 796        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 797            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 798        ):
 799            properties_sql = self.sql(
 800                exp.Properties(
 801                    expressions=[
 802                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 803                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 804                    ]
 805                )
 806            )
 807
 808        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 809        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 810
 811        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 812        if expression_sql:
 813            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 814
 815            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 816                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 817                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 818                        exp.Properties(
 819                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 820                        ),
 821                        wrapped=False,
 822                    )
 823                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 824                else:
 825                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 826
 827        postindex_props_sql = ""
 828        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 829            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 830                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 831                wrapped=False,
 832                prefix=" ",
 833            )
 834
 835        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 836        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 837        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 838
 839        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 840        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 841
 842        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 843        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 844            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 845                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 846                sep=" ",
 847                prefix=" ",
 848                wrapped=False,
 849            )
 850
 851        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 852
 853        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 854        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 855            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 856                exp.Properties(
 857                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 858                ),
 859                sep=" ",
 860                prefix=" ",
 861                wrapped=False,
 862            )
 863
 864        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 865        no_schema_binding = (
 866            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 867        )
 868
 869        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 870        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 871
 872        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 873        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 874
 875    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 878        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 879        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 880
 881    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 882        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 883
 884    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 885        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 886        if with_:
 887            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 888        return sql
 889
 890    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 891        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 892        recursive = (
 893            "RECURSIVE "
 894            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 895            else ""
 896        )
 897
 898        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 899
 900    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 901        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 902        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 903
 904    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 905        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 907        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 908
 909        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 910            alias = "_t"
 911
 912        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 913
 914    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 916        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 917            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 918        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 919
 920    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 923            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 924        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 925
 926    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 929            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 930        return this
 931
 932    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 934        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 935
 936        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 937            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 938            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 939
 940        if escape:
 941            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 942        else:
 943            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 944
 945        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 946        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 947
 948    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 949        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 950        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 951
 952    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 955        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 956        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 957
 958    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 959        type_value = expression.this
 960
 961        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 962            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 963        else:
 964            type_sql = (
 965                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 966                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 967                else type_value
 968            )
 969
 970        nested = ""
 971        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 972        values = ""
 973
 974        if interior:
 975            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 976                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 977                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 978                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 979                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 980                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 981            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 982                nested = f" {interior}"
 983            else:
 984                nested = f"({interior})"
 985
 986        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 987        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 988            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 990        ):
 991            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 992
 993        return type_sql
 994
 995    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 996        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 997        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 998        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 999        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1000
1001    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1003        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1004        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1005        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1006        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1007        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1008        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1009        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1010        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1011        if self.RETURNING_END:
1012            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1013        else:
1014            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1015        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1016
1017    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1019        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1020        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1021        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1022        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1023        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1024        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1025        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1026        return (
1027            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1028        )
1029
1030    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1031        return self.prepend_ctes(
1032            expression,
1033            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1034        )
1035
1036    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1037        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1038
1039    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1040        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1041        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1042        count = expression.args.get("count")
1043        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1044        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1045            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1046        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1047        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1048
1049    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1050        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1051            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1053            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1054
1055        agg = expression.this
1056        agg_arg = agg.this
1057        cond = expression.expression.this
1058        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1059        return self.sql(agg)
1060
1061    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1062        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1063            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1064            return ""
1065
1066        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1067
1068    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1069        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1070        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1071        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1072        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1074        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1075        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1076        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1077        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1078        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1081        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1082        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1083        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1084        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1085
1086    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1087        text = expression.name
1088        lower = text.lower()
1089        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1090        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1091        if (
1092            expression.quoted
1093            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1094            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1095            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1096        ):
1097            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1098        return text
1099
1100    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1101        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1102        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1103        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1104        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1105        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1106
1107    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1108        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1109        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1110
1111    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1112        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1113
1114    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1115        root_properties = []
1116        with_properties = []
1117
1118        for p in expression.expressions:
1119            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1120            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1121                with_properties.append(p)
1122            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1123                root_properties.append(p)
1124
1125        return self.root_properties(
1126            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1127        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1128
1129    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1130        if properties.expressions:
1131            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1132        return ""
1133
1134    def properties(
1135        self,
1136        properties: exp.Properties,
1137        prefix: str = "",
1138        sep: str = ", ",
1139        suffix: str = "",
1140        wrapped: bool = True,
1141    ) -> str:
1142        if properties.expressions:
1143            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1144            if expressions:
1145                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1146                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1147        return ""
1148
1149    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1150        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1151
1152    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1153        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1154        for p in properties.expressions:
1155            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1156            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1157                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1158            else:
1159                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1160
1161        return properties_locs
1162
1163    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1164        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1165            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1166        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1167
1168    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1169        property_cls = expression.__class__
1170        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1171            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1172
1173        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1174        if not property_name:
1175            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1176
1177        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1178
1179    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1180        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1181        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1182        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1183
1184    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1185        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1186        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1187        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1188
1189    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1190        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1191        local = expression.args.get("local")
1192        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1193        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1194        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1195        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1196        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1197
1198    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1199        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1201        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1202
1203    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1204        if expression.args.get("default"):
1205            property = "DEFAULT"
1206        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1207            property = "ON"
1208        else:
1209            property = "OFF"
1210        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1211
1212    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1213        if expression.args.get("no"):
1214            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1215        if expression.args.get("default"):
1216            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1217
1218        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1219        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1220
1221    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1222        default = expression.args.get("default")
1223        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1224        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1225        if default or minimum or maximum:
1226            if default:
1227                prop = "DEFAULT"
1228            elif minimum:
1229                prop = "MINIMUM"
1230            else:
1231                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1232            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1233        units = expression.args.get("units")
1234        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1235        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1236
1237    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1238        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1239        always = expression.args.get("always")
1240        default = expression.args.get("default")
1241        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1242        never = expression.args.get("never")
1243
1244        if autotemp is not None:
1245            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1246        elif always:
1247            prop = "ALWAYS"
1248        elif default:
1249            prop = "DEFAULT"
1250        elif manual:
1251            prop = "MANUAL"
1252        elif never:
1253            prop = "NEVER"
1254        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1255
1256    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1257        no = expression.args.get("no")
1258        no = " NO" if no else ""
1259        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1260        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1261
1262        for_ = ""
1263        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1264            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1265        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1266            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1267        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1268            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1269        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1270
1271    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1272        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1273            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1274        if expression.this:
1275            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1277            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1278
1279        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1280        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1281        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1282
1283    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285
1286        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1287        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1288            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1289        else:
1290            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1291
1292        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1293
1294    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1295        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1296        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1297        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1298        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1299        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1300        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1301        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1302
1303    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1304        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1305        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1306        statistics_sql = ""
1307        if statistics is not None:
1308            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1309        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1310
1311    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1312        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1313
1314        if expression.this:
1315            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1317
1318            if expression.expression:
1319                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1320                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1321
1322            sql = f"{sql})"
1323
1324        return f"{sql})"
1325
1326    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1327        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1328
1329        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1330            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1331        else:
1332            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1333
1334        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1335        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1336        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1337
1338        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1339
1340        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1341        partition_sql = (
1342            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1343        )
1344        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1345        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1346        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1347        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1348        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1355
1356        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1357        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1358
1359    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1360        return self.prepend_ctes(
1361            expression,
1362            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1363        )
1364
1365    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1366        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1367
1368    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1369        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1370
1371    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1372        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1373        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1375        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1376        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1377
1378    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1379        return expression.name
1380
1381    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1382        return expression.name
1383
1384    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1385        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1386        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1387        if constraint:
1388            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1389        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1390        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1391        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1392        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1393        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1394        if expressions:
1395            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1396        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1397
1398    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1399        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1400
1401    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1402        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1403        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1404        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1405        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1406        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1407        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1408        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1409        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1410        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1411        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1412        null = expression.args.get("null")
1413        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1414        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1415
1416    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1417        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1418
1419    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1420        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1421        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1422        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1423        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1424
1425    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1427        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1428        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1429        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1430
1431    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1432        table = ".".join(
1433            self.sql(part)
1434            for part in (
1435                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1436                expression.args.get("db"),
1437                expression.args.get("this"),
1438            )
1439            if part is not None
1440        )
1441
1442        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1443        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1444        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1445        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1446        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1447        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1448        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1449        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1450        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1451        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1452
1453        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1454        if file_format:
1455            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1456            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1457            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1458
1459        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1460        if ordinality:
1461            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1462            alias = ""
1463
1464        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1465        if when:
1466            table = f"{table} {when}"
1467
1468        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1469
1470    def tablesample_sql(
1471        self,
1472        expression: exp.TableSample,
1473        sep: str = " AS ",
1474        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1475    ) -> str:
1476        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1477            table = expression.this.copy()
1478            table.set("alias", None)
1479            this = self.sql(table)
1480            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1481        else:
1482            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483            alias = ""
1484
1485        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1486        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1487        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1488        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1489        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1490        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1491        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1492        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1493        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1494
1495        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1496        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1497            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1498
1499        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1500        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1501            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1502
1503        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1504        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1505            expr = f"({expr})"
1506
1507        return (
1508            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1509        )
1510
1511    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1513
1514        if expression.this:
1515            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516            if not expressions:
1517                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1518
1519            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1520            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1521            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1522            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1523            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1524
1525        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1526        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1527        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1528        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1529        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1530        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1531        if include_nulls is not None:
1532            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1533        else:
1534            nulls = ""
1535        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1536
1537    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1538        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1539        kind = expression.text("kind")
1540        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1541        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1542
1543    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1544        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1545
1546    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1549        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1550        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1551        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1552        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1553        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1554        if self.RETURNING_END:
1555            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1556        else:
1557            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1558        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1560
1561    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1562        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1563        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1564            args = self.expressions(expression)
1565            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1566            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1567            values = (
1568                f"({values})"
1569                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1570                else values
1571            )
1572            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1573
1574        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1575        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1576        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1577
1578        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1579
1580        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1581            row = tup.expressions
1582
1583            if i == 0 and column_names:
1584                row = [
1585                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1586                ]
1587
1588            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1589
1590        if self.pretty:
1591            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1592            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1593            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1594            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1595            return self.subquery_sql(
1596                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1597            )
1598
1599        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1600        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1601        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1602
1603    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1604        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1605
1606    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1607        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1608        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1609        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1610
1611    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1612        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1613
1614    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1615        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1616
1617        if expression.args.get("all"):
1618            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1619
1620        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1621        grouping_sets = (
1622            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1623        )
1624
1625        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1626        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1627            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1628        else:
1629            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1630            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1631
1632        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1633        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1634            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1635        else:
1636            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1637            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1638
1639        groupings = csv(
1640            grouping_sets,
1641            cube_sql,
1642            rollup_sql,
1643            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1644            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1645        )
1646
1647        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1648            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1649
1650        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1651
1652    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1653        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1654        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1655
1656    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1657        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1658        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1659        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1660        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1661        return start + connect
1662
1663    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1664        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1665
1666    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1667        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1668            side = None
1669        else:
1670            side = expression.side
1671
1672        op_sql = " ".join(
1673            op
1674            for op in (
1675                expression.method,
1676                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1677                side,
1678                expression.kind,
1679                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1680            )
1681            if op
1682        )
1683        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1684        using = expression.args.get("using")
1685
1686        if not on_sql and using:
1687            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1688
1689        this = expression.this
1690        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1691
1692        if on_sql:
1693            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1694            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1695            if using:
1696                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1697            else:
1698                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1699        elif not op_sql:
1700            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1701                return f" {this_sql}"
1702
1703            return f", {this_sql}"
1704
1705        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1706        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1707
1708    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1709        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1710        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1711        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1712
1713    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1714        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1715
1716        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1717        if cross_apply is True:
1718            op = "INNER JOIN "
1719        elif cross_apply is False:
1720            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1721        else:
1722            op = ""
1723
1724        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1725
1726    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728
1729        if expression.args.get("view"):
1730            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1731            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1732            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1733            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1734            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1735            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1736
1737        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1738        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1739        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1740
1741    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743
1744        args = [
1745            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1746            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1747            if e
1748        ]
1749
1750        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1751        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1752        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1753
1754    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1756        expression = expression.expression
1757        expression = (
1758            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1759        )
1760        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1761
1762    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1763        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1764        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1766        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1767        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1768        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1769        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1770        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1771
1772    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1773        expressions = (
1774            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1775        )
1776        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1777        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1778
1779    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1780        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1781
1782    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1783        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1784            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1785            return ""
1786
1787        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1788        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1789        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1790        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1791
1792        if wait is not None:
1793            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1794                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1795            else:
1796                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1797
1798        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1799
1800    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1801        text = expression.this or ""
1802        if expression.is_string:
1803            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1804        return text
1805
1806    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1807        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1808        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1809            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1810        elif self.pretty:
1811            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1812        return text
1813
1814    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1815        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1816        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1817        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1818        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1819        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1820        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1821        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1822        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1823        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1824        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1825        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1826
1827    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1828        return "NULL"
1829
1830    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1831        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1832
1833    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1835        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1836        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1837        interpolated_values = [
1838            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1839            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1840        ]
1841        interpolate = (
1842            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1843        )
1844        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1845
1846    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1847        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1848        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1849        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1850        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1851        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1852        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1853        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1854
1855    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1856        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1857
1858    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1859        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1860
1861    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1862        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1863
1864    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1865        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1866        asc = not desc
1867
1868        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1869        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1870        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1871        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1872        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1873
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875
1876        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1877        nulls_sort_change = ""
1878        if nulls_first and (
1879            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1880        ):
1881            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1882        elif (
1883            nulls_last
1884            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1885            and not nulls_are_last
1886        ):
1887            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1888
1889        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1890        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1891            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1892            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1893            nulls_sort_change = ""
1894
1895        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1896        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1897
1898        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1899
1900    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1901        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1902        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1903        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1904        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1905        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1906        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1907        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1908        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1909        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1910        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1911        definition_sqls = [
1912            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1913            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1914        ]
1915        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1916        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1917        body = "".join(
1918            (
1919                partition,
1920                order,
1921                measures,
1922                rows,
1923                after,
1924                pattern,
1925                define,
1926            )
1927        )
1928        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1929        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1930        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1931
1932    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1933        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1934
1935        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1936        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1937
1938        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1939            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1940        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1941            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1942
1943        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1944
1945        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1946            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1947            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1948            else []
1949        )
1950
1951        return csv(
1952            *sqls,
1953            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1954            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1955            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1956            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1957            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1958            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1959            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1960            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1961            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1962            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1963            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1964            sep="",
1965        )
1966
1967    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1968        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1969    ) -> t.List[str]:
1970        return [
1971            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1972            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1973        ]
1974
1975    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1976        return [
1977            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1978            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1979            if expression.args.get("windows")
1980            else "",
1981            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1982            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1983            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1984        ]
1985
1986    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1987        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1988        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1989        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1990
1991    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1992        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1993        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1994        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1995        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1996        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1997        top = (
1998            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1999            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2000            else ""
2001        )
2002
2003        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2004
2005        if kind:
2006            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2007                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2008            else:
2009                if kind == "STRUCT":
2010                    expressions = self.expressions(
2011                        sqls=[
2012                            self.sql(
2013                                exp.Struct(
2014                                    expressions=[
2015                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2016                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2017                                        )
2018                                        for e in expression.expressions
2019                                    ]
2020                                )
2021                            )
2022                        ]
2023                    )
2024                kind = ""
2025
2026        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2027        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2028        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2029        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2030        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2031            expression,
2032            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2033            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2034            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2035        )
2036        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2037
2038    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2041        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2042
2043    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2044        if expression.expressions:
2045            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2046        return ""
2047
2048    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2049        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2050        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2051        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2052        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2053        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2054
2055    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2058
2059    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        kind = expression.text("kind")
2062        if kind:
2063            kind = f"{kind}."
2064        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2065
2066    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2067        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2068
2069    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2070        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2071        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2072
2073        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2074        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2075
2076        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2077        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2078
2079    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2080        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2081        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2082
2083    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2084        return self.prepend_ctes(
2085            expression,
2086            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2087        )
2088
2089    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2090        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2091        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2092        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2093        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2094
2095    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2096        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2097
2098        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2099        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2100
2101        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2102            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2103                alias.append("columns", offset)
2104
2105        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2106            columns = alias.columns
2107            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2108        else:
2109            alias = self.sql(alias)
2110
2111        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2112        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2113            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2114        else:
2115            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2116                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2117            elif offset:
2118                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2119            else:
2120                suffix = alias
2121
2122        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2123
2124    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2125        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2126        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2127
2128    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2131        order = expression.args.get("order")
2132        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2133        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2134        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2135        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2136
2137        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2138
2139        first = expression.args.get("first")
2140        if first is None:
2141            first = ""
2142        else:
2143            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2144
2145        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2146            return f"{this} {alias}"
2147
2148        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2149        return f"{this} ({args})"
2150
2151    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2152        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2153        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2154
2155    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2156        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2157        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2158        end = (
2159            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2160            or "CURRENT ROW"
2161        )
2162        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2163
2164    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2166        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2167        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2168
2169    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2172        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2173        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2174
2175    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2176        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2177            expression.this,
2178            expression.expressions,
2179            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2180        )
2181        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2183
2184    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2185        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2186
2187    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2190            this = self.wrap(this)
2191        return f"ANY {this}"
2192
2193    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2194        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2195
2196    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2198        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2199
2200        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2201            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2202            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2203
2204        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2205
2206        if default:
2207            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2208
2209        statements.append("END")
2210
2211        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2212            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2213
2214        return " ".join(statements)
2215
2216    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2219        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2220
2221    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2222        order = expression.args.get("order")
2223        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2224        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2225
2226    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2227        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2228        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2229        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2230
2231    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2232        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2233
2234        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2235            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2236        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2237            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2238        else:
2239            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2240
2241    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2242        args = expression.expressions
2243        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2244            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2245
2246        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2247            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2248
2249        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2250            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2251
2252        return args
2253
2254    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2255        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2256
2257        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2258        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2259            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2260
2261        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2262
2263    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2264        return self.func(
2265            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2266        )
2267
2268    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2270        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2271
2272    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2274        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2275        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2276        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2277        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2278        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2279        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2280        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2281
2282    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2283        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2284        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2285        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2286        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2287
2288    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2289        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2290
2291    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2292        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2293        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2294        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2295
2296    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2297        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2298
2299    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2300        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2301
2302    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2303        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2304        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2305        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2306        if unique_keys is not None:
2307            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2308        else:
2309            unique_keys = ""
2310        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2311        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2312        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2313        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2314        return self.func(
2315            "JSON_OBJECT",
2316            *expression.expressions,
2317            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2318        )
2319
2320    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2321        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2322        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2323        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2324        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2325        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2326        return self.func(
2327            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2328        )
2329
2330    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2332        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2333        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2334        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2335        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2336        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2337        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2338        return self.func(
2339            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2340            this,
2341            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2342        )
2343
2344    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2345        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2346        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2347        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2348
2349        if nested_schema:
2350            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2351
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2354        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2355        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2356
2357    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2358        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2359
2360    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2362        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2363        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2364        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2365        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2366        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2367        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2368        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2369        return self.func(
2370            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2371        )
2372
2373    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2376        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2377        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2378        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2379        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2380
2381    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2384        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2385        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2386        with_ = (
2387            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2388            if expressions
2389            else ""
2390        )
2391        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2392
2393    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2394        query = expression.args.get("query")
2395        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2396        field = expression.args.get("field")
2397        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2398
2399        if query:
2400            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2401        elif unnest:
2402            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2403        elif field:
2404            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2405        else:
2406            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2407
2408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2409
2410    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2411        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2412
2413    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2414        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2415        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2416            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2417        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2418
2419        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2420            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2421            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2422
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        if this:
2425            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2426            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2427
2428        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2429
2430    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2431        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2432
2433    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2436        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2437        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2438        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2439        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2440
2441    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2442        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2443
2444    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2445        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2446            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2447        else:
2448            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2449            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2450
2451        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2452
2453    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2454        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2455        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2457        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2458
2459    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2460        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2461
2462    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2463        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2464        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2465        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2466
2467    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2468        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2469
2470    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2472        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2473        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2474
2475    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2478        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2479
2480    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2481        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2482
2483    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2484        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2485
2486    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2487        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2488
2489    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2490        if not self.pretty:
2491            return self.binary(expression, op)
2492
2493        sqls = tuple(
2494            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2495            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2496        )
2497
2498        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2499        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2500
2501    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2502        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2503
2504    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2506
2507    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2508        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2509
2510    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2511        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2512
2513    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2515
2516    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2517        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2518
2519    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2520        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2521        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2522        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2523        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2524        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2525
2526    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2527        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2529
2530    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2531        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2532            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2533        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2534
2535    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2536        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2537
2538    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2540        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2541        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2542        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2543        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2544
2545    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2547        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2548        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2549        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2550        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2551        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2552        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2553        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2554        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2555
2556    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2557        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2558        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2559        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2560        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2561
2562        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2563            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2564
2565        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2566
2567    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2568        return "BEGIN"
2569
2570    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2571        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2572        if chain is not None:
2573            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2574
2575        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2576
2577    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2578        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2579        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2580        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2581
2582    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2584
2585        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2586        if dtype:
2587            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2588            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2589            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2590            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2591            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2592
2593        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2594        if default:
2595            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2596
2597        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2598            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2599
2600        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2601
2602    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2603        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2604            # Remove db from tables
2605            expression = expression.transform(
2606                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2607            )
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2610
2611    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2612        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2613
2614        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2615            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2616        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2617            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2618        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2619            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2620        else:
2621            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2622
2623        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2624        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2625        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2626
2627    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2628        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2629            return self.expressions(
2630                expression,
2631                key="actions",
2632                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2633            )
2634        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2635
2636    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2637        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2638        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2639        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2640
2641    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2643        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2644        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2645
2646        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2647        if enforced is not None:
2648            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2649
2650        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2651
2652    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2653        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2655
2656        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2657        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2658        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2659
2660    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2661        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2662
2663    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2664        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2665
2666    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2667        return self.sql(
2668            exp.Cast(
2669                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2670                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2671            )
2672        )
2673
2674    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2675        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2676            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2677        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2678
2679    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2680        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2681
2682        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2683            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2684
2685        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2686            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2687                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2688            ):
2689                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2690
2691        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2692            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2693                return self.sql(
2694                    exp.cast(
2695                        l / r,
2696                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2697                    )
2698                )
2699
2700        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2701
2702    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2703        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2704
2705    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2706        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2707
2708    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2709        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2710
2711    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2712        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2713
2714    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2716
2717    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2718        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2719
2720    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2721        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2722
2723    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2724        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2725
2726    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2727        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2728
2729    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2730        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2731
2732    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2733        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2734
2735    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2736        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2737            return self.sql(
2738                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2739            )
2740        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2741
2742    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2743        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2744
2745    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2746        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2747
2748    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2749        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2750
2751    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2752        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2753
2754    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2755        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2756
2757    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2758        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2759
2760    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2761        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2762
2763    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2764        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2765
2766    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2767        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2768
2769    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2770        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2771
2772    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2773        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2774
2775    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2776        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2777
2778    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2779        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2780
2781    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2782        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2783
2784    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2785        this = expression.this
2786        expr = expression.expression
2787
2788        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2789            this, expr = expr, this
2790
2791        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2792
2793    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2794        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2795        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2798        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2799
2800    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2801        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2802        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2803
2804    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2805        args = []
2806
2807        for key in expression.arg_types:
2808            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2809
2810            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2811                for value in arg_value:
2812                    args.append(value)
2813            elif arg_value is not None:
2814                args.append(arg_value)
2815
2816        if self.normalize_functions:
2817            name = expression.sql_name()
2818        else:
2819            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2820
2821        return self.func(name, *args)
2822
2823    def func(
2824        self,
2825        name: str,
2826        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2827        prefix: str = "(",
2828        suffix: str = ")",
2829    ) -> str:
2830        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2831
2832    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2833        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2834        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2835            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2836        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2837
2838    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2839        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2840
2841    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2842        return format_time(
2843            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2844            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2845            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2846        )
2847
2848    def expressions(
2849        self,
2850        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2851        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2852        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2853        flat: bool = False,
2854        indent: bool = True,
2855        skip_first: bool = False,
2856        sep: str = ", ",
2857        prefix: str = "",
2858    ) -> str:
2859        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2860
2861        if not expressions:
2862            return ""
2863
2864        if flat:
2865            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2866
2867        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2868
2869        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2870        pad = " " * self.pad
2871        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2872
2873        result_sqls = []
2874        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2875            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2876            if not sql:
2877                continue
2878
2879            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2880
2881            if self.pretty:
2882                if self.leading_comma:
2883                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2884                else:
2885                    result_sqls.append(
2886                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2887                    )
2888            else:
2889                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2890
2891        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2892        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2893
2894    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2895        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2896        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2897        if flat:
2898            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2899        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2900
2901    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2902        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2903        if not property_name:
2904            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2905        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2906
2907    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2908        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2909        op = self.seg(op)
2910        return self.query_modifiers(
2911            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2912        )
2913
2914    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2915        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2916
2917    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2918        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2919
2920    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2922        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2923        expressions = (
2924            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2925        )
2926        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2927
2928    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2931        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2932
2933    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2934        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2935
2936    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2937        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2938        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2939        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2940        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2941
2942        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2943        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2944            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2945            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2946                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2947        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2948            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2949                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2950            else:
2951                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2952        else:
2953            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2954        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2955
2956    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2957        table = expression.this
2958        table_alias = ""
2959
2960        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2961        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2962            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2963            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2964
2965        this = self.sql(table)
2966        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2967        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2968        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2969
2970        return self.prepend_ctes(
2971            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2972        )
2973
2974    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2975        if expression.args.get("format"):
2976            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2977
2978        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2979
2980    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2982        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2983        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2984        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2985        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2986
2987    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2989        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2990        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2991        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2992
2993    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2994        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2995
2996    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2997        return ""
2998
2999    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3001        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3002        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3003        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3004        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3005
3006    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3009
3010        if having:
3011            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3012
3013        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3014
3015    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3016        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3017        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3018        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3019        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3020        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3021        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3022        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3023        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3024        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3025        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3026        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3027        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3028        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3029
3030    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3031        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3032        if key_block_size:
3033            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3034
3035        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3036        if using:
3037            return f"USING {using}"
3038
3039        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3040        if parser:
3041            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3042
3043        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3044        if comment:
3045            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3046
3047        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3048        if visible is not None:
3049            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3050
3051        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3052        if engine_attr:
3053            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3054
3055        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3056        if secondary_engine_attr:
3057            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3058
3059        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3060        return ""
3061
3062    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3063        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3064        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3067        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3068        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3069        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3070        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3071        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3072        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3073        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3074
3075    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3076        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3077            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3078
3079        case = exp.Case().when(
3080            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3081            expression.args["true"],
3082            copy=False,
3083        )
3084        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3085        if else_cond:
3086            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3087
3088        return self.sql(case)
3089
3090    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3092        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3093        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3094        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3095        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3096        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3097
3098    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3099        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3100
3101    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3102        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3103
3104    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3105        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3106        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3107        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3108        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3109        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3110        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3111
3112    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3115        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3116
3117    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3119        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3120        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3121
3122    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3124
3125    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3126        arg = expression.this
3127        if not arg.type:
3128            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3129
3130            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3131
3132        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3133            return self.sql(arg)
3134
3135        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3136        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3137
3138    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3139        this = expression.this
3140        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3141            return self.sql(this)
3142
3143        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3144
3145    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3146        this = expression.this
3147        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3148
3149        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3150            return self.sql(
3151                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3152            )
3153
3154        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3155            return self.sql(this)
3156
3157        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3158
3159    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3160        return self.sql(
3161            exp.func(
3162                "DATEDIFF",
3163                expression.this,
3164                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3165                "day",
3166            )
3167        )
3168
3169    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3170        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3171            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3172
3173        unit = expression.text("unit")
3174        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3175            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3176
3177        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3178
3179    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3180        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3181            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3182
3183            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3184
3185        return expression
3186
3187    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3188        return [
3189            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3190            for value in values
3191            if value
3192        ]
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  25class Generator:
  26    """
  27    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  28
  29    Args:
  30        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  31            Default: False.
  32        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  33            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  34            True or 'always': Always quote.
  35            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  36        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  37            Default: False.
  38        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  39            Default: 2.
  40        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  41            Default: 2.
  42        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  43            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  44            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  45            False: Disables function name normalization.
  46        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  47            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  49            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  50            Default: 3
  51        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  52            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  53            Default: False
  54        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  55            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  56            line length.
  57            Default: 80
  58        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  59            Default: True
  60    """
  61
  62    TRANSFORMS = {
  63        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  64            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  65        ),
  66        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  67        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  70        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  71        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  74        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  80        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  81        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  84        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  87        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  88        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  89        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  90        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  91        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  92        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 100        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 101        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 102        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 103        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 104        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 105        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 106        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 107        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 109        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 110        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 111        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 112    }
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 142    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 145    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 146
 147    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 148    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 149
 150    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 151    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 152
 153    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 154    JOIN_HINTS = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 157    TABLE_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 160    QUERY_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 163    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 164
 165    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 166    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 169    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 172    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 175    RETURNING_END = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 178    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 181    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 184    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 187    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 188
 189    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 190    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 191
 192    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 193    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 194    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 195    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 196
 197    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 198    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 199
 200    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 201    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 204    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 207    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 210    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 213    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 216    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 219    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 220
 221    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 222    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 223
 224    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 225    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 226
 227    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 228    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 229
 230    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 231    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 234    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 235
 236    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 237    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 238
 239    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 240    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 241
 242    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 243    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 244
 245    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 246    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 247
 248    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 249        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 255        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 256        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 257        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 258    }
 259
 260    STAR_MAPPING = {
 261        "except": "EXCEPT",
 262        "replace": "REPLACE",
 263    }
 264
 265    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 266        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 267        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 268        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 269        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 270        "DAYS": "DAY",
 271        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 272        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 273        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 274        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 275    }
 276
 277    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 278
 279    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 280
 281    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 282
 283    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 284        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 285        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 296        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 303        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 304        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 305        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 307        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 309        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 310        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 314        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 315        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 316        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 318        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 320        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 323        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 326        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 339        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 341        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 343        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 346        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 347        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 348        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 349    }
 350
 351    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 352    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 353
 354    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 355    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 356        exp.Create,
 357        exp.Delete,
 358        exp.Drop,
 359        exp.From,
 360        exp.Insert,
 361        exp.Join,
 362        exp.Select,
 363        exp.Update,
 364        exp.Where,
 365        exp.With,
 366    )
 367
 368    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 369    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 370        exp.Binary,
 371        exp.Union,
 372    )
 373
 374    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 375    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 376        exp.Column,
 377        exp.Literal,
 378        exp.Neg,
 379        exp.Paren,
 380    )
 381
 382    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 383    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 384
 385    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 386
 387    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 388
 389    __slots__ = (
 390        "pretty",
 391        "identify",
 392        "normalize",
 393        "pad",
 394        "_indent",
 395        "normalize_functions",
 396        "unsupported_level",
 397        "max_unsupported",
 398        "leading_comma",
 399        "max_text_width",
 400        "comments",
 401        "dialect",
 402        "unsupported_messages",
 403        "_escaped_quote_end",
 404        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 405    )
 406
 407    def __init__(
 408        self,
 409        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 410        identify: str | bool = False,
 411        normalize: bool = False,
 412        pad: int = 2,
 413        indent: int = 2,
 414        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 415        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 416        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 417        leading_comma: bool = False,
 418        max_text_width: int = 80,
 419        comments: bool = True,
 420        dialect: DialectType = None,
 421    ):
 422        import sqlglot
 423        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 424
 425        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 426        self.identify = identify
 427        self.normalize = normalize
 428        self.pad = pad
 429        self._indent = indent
 430        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 431        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 432        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 433        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 434        self.comments = comments
 435        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 436
 437        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 438        self.normalize_functions = (
 439            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 440        )
 441
 442        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 443        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 444            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 445        )
 446        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 447            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 448        )
 449
 450    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 451        """
 452        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 453
 454        Args:
 455            expression: The syntax tree.
 456            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 457                it is safer to copy.
 458
 459        Returns:
 460            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 461        """
 462        if copy:
 463            expression = expression.copy()
 464
 465        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 466
 467        self.unsupported_messages = []
 468        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 469
 470        if self.pretty:
 471            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 472
 473        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 474            return sql
 475
 476        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 477            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 478                logger.warning(msg)
 479        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 480            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 481
 482        return sql
 483
 484    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 485        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 486        if (
 487            not expression.parent
 488            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 489            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 490        ):
 491            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 492
 493            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 494
 495        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 496            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 497
 498            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 499
 500        return expression
 501
 502    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 503        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 504            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 505        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 506
 507    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 508        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 509
 510    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 511        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 512
 513    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 514        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 515        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 516        return comment
 517
 518    def maybe_comment(
 519        self,
 520        sql: str,
 521        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 522        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 523    ) -> str:
 524        comments = (
 525            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 526            if self.comments
 527            else None
 528        )
 529
 530        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 531            return sql
 532
 533        comments_sql = " ".join(
 534            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 535        )
 536
 537        if not comments_sql:
 538            return sql
 539
 540        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 541            return (
 542                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 543                if sql[0].isspace()
 544                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 545            )
 546
 547        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 548
 549    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 550        this_sql = self.indent(
 551            self.sql(expression)
 552            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 553            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 554            level=1,
 555            pad=0,
 556        )
 557        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 558
 559    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 560        original = self.identify
 561        self.identify = False
 562        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 563        self.identify = original
 564        return result
 565
 566    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 567        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 568            return name.upper()
 569        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 570            return name.lower()
 571        return name
 572
 573    def indent(
 574        self,
 575        sql: str,
 576        level: int = 0,
 577        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 578        skip_first: bool = False,
 579        skip_last: bool = False,
 580    ) -> str:
 581        if not self.pretty:
 582            return sql
 583
 584        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 585        lines = sql.split("\n")
 586
 587        return "\n".join(
 588            line
 589            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 590            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 591            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 592        )
 593
 594    def sql(
 595        self,
 596        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 597        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 598        comment: bool = True,
 599    ) -> str:
 600        if not expression:
 601            return ""
 602
 603        if isinstance(expression, str):
 604            return expression
 605
 606        if key:
 607            value = expression.args.get(key)
 608            if value:
 609                return self.sql(value)
 610            return ""
 611
 612        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 613
 614        if callable(transform):
 615            sql = transform(self, expression)
 616        elif transform:
 617            sql = transform
 618        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 619            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 620
 621            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 622                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 623            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 624                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 625            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 626                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 627            else:
 628                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 629        else:
 630            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 631
 632        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 633
 634    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 635        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 637        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 638
 639    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 640        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 641        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 642        options = expression.args.get("options")
 643        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 644        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 645        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 646        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 647        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 648
 649    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 650        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 651            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 652        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 653        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 654
 655    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 656        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 657
 658        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 659            join_mark = ""
 660            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 661
 662        column = ".".join(
 663            self.sql(part)
 664            for part in (
 665                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 666                expression.args.get("db"),
 667                expression.args.get("table"),
 668                expression.args.get("this"),
 669            )
 670            if part
 671        )
 672
 673        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 674
 675    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 677        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 678        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 679        return f"{position}{this}"
 680
 681    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 682        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 684        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 685        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 686        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 687        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 688        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 689        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 690
 691        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 692            kind = ""
 693
 694        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 695
 696    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 698        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 699        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 700
 701    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 704            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 705        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 706            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 707        else:
 708            persisted = ""
 709        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 710
 711    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 712        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 713
 714    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 715        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 716            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 717        else:
 718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 719
 720        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 721
 722    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 723        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 724    ) -> str:
 725        this = ""
 726        if expression.this is not None:
 727            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 728            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 729
 730        start = expression.args.get("start")
 731        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 732        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 733        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 734        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 735        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 736        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 737        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 738        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 739        cycle_sql = ""
 740
 741        if cycle is not None:
 742            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 743            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 744
 745        sequence_opts = ""
 746        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 747            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 748            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 749
 750        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 751        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 752
 753        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 754
 755    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 756        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 757    ) -> str:
 758        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 759        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 760        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 761
 762    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 763        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 764    ) -> str:
 765        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 766
 767    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 768        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 769
 770    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 771        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 772
 773    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 774        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 775        if desc is not None:
 776            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 777        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 778
 779    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 782        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 784        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 785
 786    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 787        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 788
 789    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 791        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 792        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 793
 794        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 795
 796        properties_sql = ""
 797        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 798            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 799        ):
 800            properties_sql = self.sql(
 801                exp.Properties(
 802                    expressions=[
 803                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 804                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 805                    ]
 806                )
 807            )
 808
 809        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 810        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 811
 812        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 813        if expression_sql:
 814            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 815
 816            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 817                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 818                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 819                        exp.Properties(
 820                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 821                        ),
 822                        wrapped=False,
 823                    )
 824                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 825                else:
 826                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 827
 828        postindex_props_sql = ""
 829        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 830            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 831                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 832                wrapped=False,
 833                prefix=" ",
 834            )
 835
 836        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 837        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 838        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 839
 840        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 841        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 842
 843        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 844        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 845            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 846                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 847                sep=" ",
 848                prefix=" ",
 849                wrapped=False,
 850            )
 851
 852        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 853
 854        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 855        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 856            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 857                exp.Properties(
 858                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 859                ),
 860                sep=" ",
 861                prefix=" ",
 862                wrapped=False,
 863            )
 864
 865        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 866        no_schema_binding = (
 867            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 868        )
 869
 870        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 871        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 872
 873        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 874        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 875
 876    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 878        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 879        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 880        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 881
 882    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 883        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 884
 885    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 886        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 887        if with_:
 888            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 889        return sql
 890
 891    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 892        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 893        recursive = (
 894            "RECURSIVE "
 895            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 896            else ""
 897        )
 898
 899        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 900
 901    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 902        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 903        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 904
 905    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 906        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 908        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 909
 910        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 911            alias = "_t"
 912
 913        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 914
 915    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 918            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 919        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 920
 921    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 924            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 925        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 926
 927    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 930            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 931        return this
 932
 933    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 935        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 936
 937        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 938            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 939            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 940
 941        if escape:
 942            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 943        else:
 944            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 945
 946        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 947        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 948
 949    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 950        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 951        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 952
 953    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 955        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 957        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 958
 959    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 960        type_value = expression.this
 961
 962        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 963            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 964        else:
 965            type_sql = (
 966                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 967                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 968                else type_value
 969            )
 970
 971        nested = ""
 972        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 973        values = ""
 974
 975        if interior:
 976            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 977                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 978                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 979                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 980                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 981                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 982            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 983                nested = f" {interior}"
 984            else:
 985                nested = f"({interior})"
 986
 987        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 988        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 990            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 991        ):
 992            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 993
 994        return type_sql
 995
 996    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 997        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 998        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 999        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1000        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1001
1002    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1004        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1005        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1006        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1007        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1008        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1009        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1010        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1011        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1012        if self.RETURNING_END:
1013            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1014        else:
1015            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1017
1018    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1021        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1022        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1024        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1025        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1026        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1027        return (
1028            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1029        )
1030
1031    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1032        return self.prepend_ctes(
1033            expression,
1034            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1035        )
1036
1037    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1038        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1039
1040    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1041        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1042        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1043        count = expression.args.get("count")
1044        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1045        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1046            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1047        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1048        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1049
1050    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1051        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1052            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1053            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1054            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1055
1056        agg = expression.this
1057        agg_arg = agg.this
1058        cond = expression.expression.this
1059        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1060        return self.sql(agg)
1061
1062    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1063        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1064            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1065            return ""
1066
1067        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1068
1069    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1070        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1071        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1072        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1073        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1075        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1076        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1077        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1078        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1079        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1080        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1081        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1082        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1083        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1084        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1085        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1086
1087    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1088        text = expression.name
1089        lower = text.lower()
1090        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1091        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1092        if (
1093            expression.quoted
1094            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1095            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1096            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1097        ):
1098            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1099        return text
1100
1101    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1102        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1103        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1104        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1105        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1106        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1107
1108    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1109        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1110        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1111
1112    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1113        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1114
1115    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1116        root_properties = []
1117        with_properties = []
1118
1119        for p in expression.expressions:
1120            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1121            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1122                with_properties.append(p)
1123            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1124                root_properties.append(p)
1125
1126        return self.root_properties(
1127            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1128        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1129
1130    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1131        if properties.expressions:
1132            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1133        return ""
1134
1135    def properties(
1136        self,
1137        properties: exp.Properties,
1138        prefix: str = "",
1139        sep: str = ", ",
1140        suffix: str = "",
1141        wrapped: bool = True,
1142    ) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1145            if expressions:
1146                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1147                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1148        return ""
1149
1150    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1151        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1152
1153    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1154        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1155        for p in properties.expressions:
1156            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1157            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1158                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1159            else:
1160                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1161
1162        return properties_locs
1163
1164    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1165        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1166            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1168
1169    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1170        property_cls = expression.__class__
1171        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1172            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1173
1174        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1175        if not property_name:
1176            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1177
1178        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1179
1180    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1181        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1184
1185    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1186        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1187        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1188        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1189
1190    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1191        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1192        local = expression.args.get("local")
1193        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1194        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1195        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1196        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1197        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1198
1199    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1200        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1202        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1203
1204    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("default"):
1206            property = "DEFAULT"
1207        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1208            property = "ON"
1209        else:
1210            property = "OFF"
1211        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1212
1213    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("no"):
1215            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1216        if expression.args.get("default"):
1217            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1218
1219        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1220        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1221
1222    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1223        default = expression.args.get("default")
1224        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1225        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1226        if default or minimum or maximum:
1227            if default:
1228                prop = "DEFAULT"
1229            elif minimum:
1230                prop = "MINIMUM"
1231            else:
1232                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1233            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1234        units = expression.args.get("units")
1235        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1236        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1237
1238    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1239        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1240        always = expression.args.get("always")
1241        default = expression.args.get("default")
1242        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1243        never = expression.args.get("never")
1244
1245        if autotemp is not None:
1246            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1247        elif always:
1248            prop = "ALWAYS"
1249        elif default:
1250            prop = "DEFAULT"
1251        elif manual:
1252            prop = "MANUAL"
1253        elif never:
1254            prop = "NEVER"
1255        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1256
1257    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1258        no = expression.args.get("no")
1259        no = " NO" if no else ""
1260        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1261        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1262
1263        for_ = ""
1264        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1265            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1266        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1267            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1268        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1269            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1270        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1271
1272    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1273        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1274            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1275        if expression.this:
1276            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1278            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1279
1280        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1281        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1282        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1283
1284    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286
1287        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1288        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1289            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1290        else:
1291            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1292
1293        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1294
1295    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1296        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1297        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1298        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1299        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1300        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1301        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1302        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1303
1304    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1305        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1306        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1307        statistics_sql = ""
1308        if statistics is not None:
1309            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1310        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1311
1312    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1313        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1318
1319            if expression.expression:
1320                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1321                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1322
1323            sql = f"{sql})"
1324
1325        return f"{sql})"
1326
1327    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1328        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1329
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1331            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1332        else:
1333            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1334
1335        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1336        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1337        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1338
1339        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1340
1341        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1342        partition_sql = (
1343            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1344        )
1345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1347        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1348        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1349        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1350        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1351
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1356
1357        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1359
1360    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1361        return self.prepend_ctes(
1362            expression,
1363            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1364        )
1365
1366    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1367        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1368
1369    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1371
1372    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1374        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1377        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1378
1379    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1380        return expression.name
1381
1382    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1383        return expression.name
1384
1385    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1386        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1387        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1388        if constraint:
1389            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1390        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1391        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1392        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1393        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1394        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1395        if expressions:
1396            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1397        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1398
1399    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1400        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1401
1402    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1403        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1404        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1405        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1406        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1407        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1408        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1409        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1410        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1411        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1412        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1413        null = expression.args.get("null")
1414        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1415        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1416
1417    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1418        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1419
1420    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1421        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1422        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1423        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1424        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1425
1426    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1428        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1429        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1430        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1431
1432    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1433        table = ".".join(
1434            self.sql(part)
1435            for part in (
1436                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1437                expression.args.get("db"),
1438                expression.args.get("this"),
1439            )
1440            if part is not None
1441        )
1442
1443        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1444        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1445        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1446        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1447        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1448        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1449        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1450        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1451        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1452        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1453
1454        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1455        if file_format:
1456            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1457            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1458            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1459
1460        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1461        if ordinality:
1462            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1463            alias = ""
1464
1465        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1466        if when:
1467            table = f"{table} {when}"
1468
1469        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1470
1471    def tablesample_sql(
1472        self,
1473        expression: exp.TableSample,
1474        sep: str = " AS ",
1475        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1476    ) -> str:
1477        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1478            table = expression.this.copy()
1479            table.set("alias", None)
1480            this = self.sql(table)
1481            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1482        else:
1483            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484            alias = ""
1485
1486        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1487        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1488        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1489        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1490        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1491        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1492        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1493        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1494        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1495
1496        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1497        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1498            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1499
1500        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1501        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1502            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1503
1504        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1505        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1506            expr = f"({expr})"
1507
1508        return (
1509            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1510        )
1511
1512    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1514
1515        if expression.this:
1516            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1517            if not expressions:
1518                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1519
1520            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1521            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1522            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1523            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1524            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1525
1526        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1527        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1528        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1529        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1530        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1531        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1532        if include_nulls is not None:
1533            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1534        else:
1535            nulls = ""
1536        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1537
1538    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1539        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1540        kind = expression.text("kind")
1541        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1542        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1543
1544    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1545        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1546
1547    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1549        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1550        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1551        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1552        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1553        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1554        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1555        if self.RETURNING_END:
1556            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1557        else:
1558            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1559        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1560        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1561
1562    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1563        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1564        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1565            args = self.expressions(expression)
1566            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1567            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1568            values = (
1569                f"({values})"
1570                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1571                else values
1572            )
1573            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1574
1575        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1576        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1577        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1578
1579        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1580
1581        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1582            row = tup.expressions
1583
1584            if i == 0 and column_names:
1585                row = [
1586                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1587                ]
1588
1589            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1590
1591        if self.pretty:
1592            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1593            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1594            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1595            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1596            return self.subquery_sql(
1597                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1598            )
1599
1600        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1601        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1602        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1603
1604    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1605        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1606
1607    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1608        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1609        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1610        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1611
1612    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1613        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1614
1615    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1616        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1617
1618        if expression.args.get("all"):
1619            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1620
1621        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1622        grouping_sets = (
1623            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1624        )
1625
1626        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1627        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1628            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1629        else:
1630            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1631            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1632
1633        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1634        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1635            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1636        else:
1637            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1638            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1639
1640        groupings = csv(
1641            grouping_sets,
1642            cube_sql,
1643            rollup_sql,
1644            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1645            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1646        )
1647
1648        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1649            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1650
1651        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1652
1653    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1654        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1655        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1656
1657    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1658        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1659        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1660        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1661        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1662        return start + connect
1663
1664    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1665        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1666
1667    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1668        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1669            side = None
1670        else:
1671            side = expression.side
1672
1673        op_sql = " ".join(
1674            op
1675            for op in (
1676                expression.method,
1677                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1678                side,
1679                expression.kind,
1680                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1681            )
1682            if op
1683        )
1684        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1685        using = expression.args.get("using")
1686
1687        if not on_sql and using:
1688            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1689
1690        this = expression.this
1691        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1692
1693        if on_sql:
1694            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1695            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1696            if using:
1697                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1698            else:
1699                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1700        elif not op_sql:
1701            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1702                return f" {this_sql}"
1703
1704            return f", {this_sql}"
1705
1706        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1707        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1708
1709    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1710        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1711        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1712        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1713
1714    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1715        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1716
1717        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1718        if cross_apply is True:
1719            op = "INNER JOIN "
1720        elif cross_apply is False:
1721            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1722        else:
1723            op = ""
1724
1725        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1726
1727    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729
1730        if expression.args.get("view"):
1731            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1732            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1733            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1734            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1735            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1736            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1737
1738        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1739        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1740        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1741
1742    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744
1745        args = [
1746            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1747            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1748            if e
1749        ]
1750
1751        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1752        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1753        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1754
1755    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757        expression = expression.expression
1758        expression = (
1759            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1760        )
1761        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1762
1763    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1764        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1765        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1768        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1769        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1770        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1771        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1772
1773    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1774        expressions = (
1775            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1776        )
1777        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1778        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1779
1780    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1781        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1782
1783    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1784        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1785            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1786            return ""
1787
1788        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1789        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1790        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1791        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1792
1793        if wait is not None:
1794            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1795                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1796            else:
1797                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1798
1799        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1800
1801    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1802        text = expression.this or ""
1803        if expression.is_string:
1804            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1805        return text
1806
1807    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1808        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1809        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1810            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1811        elif self.pretty:
1812            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1813        return text
1814
1815    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1816        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1817        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1818        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1819        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1820        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1821        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1822        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1823        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1824        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1825        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1826        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1827
1828    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1829        return "NULL"
1830
1831    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1832        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1833
1834    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1836        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1837        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1838        interpolated_values = [
1839            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1840            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1841        ]
1842        interpolate = (
1843            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1844        )
1845        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1846
1847    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1848        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1849        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1850        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1851        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1852        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1853        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1854        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1855
1856    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1857        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1858
1859    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1860        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1861
1862    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1863        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1864
1865    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1866        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1867        asc = not desc
1868
1869        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1870        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1871        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1872        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1873        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1874
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876
1877        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1878        nulls_sort_change = ""
1879        if nulls_first and (
1880            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1881        ):
1882            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1883        elif (
1884            nulls_last
1885            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1886            and not nulls_are_last
1887        ):
1888            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1889
1890        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1891        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1892            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1893            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1894            nulls_sort_change = ""
1895
1896        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1897        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1898
1899        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1900
1901    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1902        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1903        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1904        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1905        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1906        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1907        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1908        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1909        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1910        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1911        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1912        definition_sqls = [
1913            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1914            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1915        ]
1916        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1917        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1918        body = "".join(
1919            (
1920                partition,
1921                order,
1922                measures,
1923                rows,
1924                after,
1925                pattern,
1926                define,
1927            )
1928        )
1929        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1930        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1931        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1932
1933    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1934        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1935
1936        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1937        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1938
1939        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1940            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1941        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1942            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1943
1944        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1945
1946        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1947            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1948            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1949            else []
1950        )
1951
1952        return csv(
1953            *sqls,
1954            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1955            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1956            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1957            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1958            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1959            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1960            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1961            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1962            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1963            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1964            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1965            sep="",
1966        )
1967
1968    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1969        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1970    ) -> t.List[str]:
1971        return [
1972            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1973            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1974        ]
1975
1976    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1977        return [
1978            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1979            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1980            if expression.args.get("windows")
1981            else "",
1982            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1983            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1984            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1985        ]
1986
1987    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1988        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1989        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1990        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1991
1992    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1993        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1994        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1995        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1997        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1998        top = (
1999            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2000            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2001            else ""
2002        )
2003
2004        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2005
2006        if kind:
2007            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2008                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2009            else:
2010                if kind == "STRUCT":
2011                    expressions = self.expressions(
2012                        sqls=[
2013                            self.sql(
2014                                exp.Struct(
2015                                    expressions=[
2016                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2017                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2018                                        )
2019                                        for e in expression.expressions
2020                                    ]
2021                                )
2022                            )
2023                        ]
2024                    )
2025                kind = ""
2026
2027        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2028        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2029        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2030        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2031        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2032            expression,
2033            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2034            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2035            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2036        )
2037        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2038
2039    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2042        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2043
2044    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2045        if expression.expressions:
2046            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2047        return ""
2048
2049    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2050        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2051        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2052        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2053        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2054        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2055
2056    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2059
2060    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        kind = expression.text("kind")
2063        if kind:
2064            kind = f"{kind}."
2065        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2066
2067    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2068        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2069
2070    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2071        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2072        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2073
2074        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2075        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2076
2077        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2078        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2079
2080    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2081        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2082        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2083
2084    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2085        return self.prepend_ctes(
2086            expression,
2087            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2088        )
2089
2090    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2091        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2092        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2093        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2094        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2095
2096    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2097        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2098
2099        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2100        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2101
2102        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2103            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2104                alias.append("columns", offset)
2105
2106        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2107            columns = alias.columns
2108            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2109        else:
2110            alias = self.sql(alias)
2111
2112        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2113        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2114            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2115        else:
2116            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2117                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2118            elif offset:
2119                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2120            else:
2121                suffix = alias
2122
2123        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2124
2125    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2126        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2127        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2128
2129    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2132        order = expression.args.get("order")
2133        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2134        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2135        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2136        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2137
2138        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2139
2140        first = expression.args.get("first")
2141        if first is None:
2142            first = ""
2143        else:
2144            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2145
2146        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2147            return f"{this} {alias}"
2148
2149        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2150        return f"{this} ({args})"
2151
2152    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2153        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2154        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2155
2156    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2157        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2158        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2159        end = (
2160            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2161            or "CURRENT ROW"
2162        )
2163        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2164
2165    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2167        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2168        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2169
2170    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2173        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2174        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2175
2176    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2177        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2178            expression.this,
2179            expression.expressions,
2180            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2181        )
2182        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2184
2185    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2186        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2187
2188    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2191            this = self.wrap(this)
2192        return f"ANY {this}"
2193
2194    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2195        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2196
2197    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2199        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2200
2201        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2202            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2203            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2204
2205        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2206
2207        if default:
2208            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2209
2210        statements.append("END")
2211
2212        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2213            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2214
2215        return " ".join(statements)
2216
2217    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2220        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2221
2222    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2223        order = expression.args.get("order")
2224        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2225        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2226
2227    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2229        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2230        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2231
2232    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2233        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2234
2235        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2236            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2237        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2238            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2239        else:
2240            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2241
2242    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2243        args = expression.expressions
2244        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2245            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2246
2247        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2248            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2249
2250        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2251            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2252
2253        return args
2254
2255    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2256        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2257
2258        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2259        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2260            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2261
2262        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2263
2264    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2265        return self.func(
2266            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2267        )
2268
2269    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2271        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2272
2273    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2274        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2275        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2276        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2277        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2278        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2279        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2280        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2281        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2282
2283    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2284        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2285        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2286        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2287        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2288
2289    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2290        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2291
2292    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2293        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2294        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2295        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2296
2297    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2299
2300    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2302
2303    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2304        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2305        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2306        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2307        if unique_keys is not None:
2308            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2309        else:
2310            unique_keys = ""
2311        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2312        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2313        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2314        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2315        return self.func(
2316            "JSON_OBJECT",
2317            *expression.expressions,
2318            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2319        )
2320
2321    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2322        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2323        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2324        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2325        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2326        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2327        return self.func(
2328            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2329        )
2330
2331    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2334        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2335        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2336        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2337        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2338        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2339        return self.func(
2340            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2341            this,
2342            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2343        )
2344
2345    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2346        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2347        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2348        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2349
2350        if nested_schema:
2351            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2352
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2355        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2356        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2357
2358    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2359        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2360
2361    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2364        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2365        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2366        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2367        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2368        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2369        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2370        return self.func(
2371            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2372        )
2373
2374    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2376        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2377        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2378        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2379        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2380        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2381
2382    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2385        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2386        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2387        with_ = (
2388            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2389            if expressions
2390            else ""
2391        )
2392        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2393
2394    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2395        query = expression.args.get("query")
2396        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2397        field = expression.args.get("field")
2398        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2399
2400        if query:
2401            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2402        elif unnest:
2403            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2404        elif field:
2405            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2406        else:
2407            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2408
2409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2410
2411    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2412        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2413
2414    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2415        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2416        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2417            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2418        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2419
2420        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2421            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2422            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2423
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        if this:
2426            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2427            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2428
2429        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2430
2431    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2432        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2433
2434    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2437        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2438        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2439        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2440        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2441
2442    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2443        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2444
2445    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2446        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2447            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2448        else:
2449            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2450            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2451
2452        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2453
2454    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2455        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2456        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2458        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2459
2460    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2461        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2462
2463    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2464        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2465        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2467
2468    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2469        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2470
2471    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2473        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2474        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2475
2476    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2479        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2480
2481    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2483
2484    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2485        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2486
2487    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2488        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2489
2490    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2491        if not self.pretty:
2492            return self.binary(expression, op)
2493
2494        sqls = tuple(
2495            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2496            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2497        )
2498
2499        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2500        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2501
2502    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2503        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2504
2505    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2506        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2507
2508    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2509        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2510
2511    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2512        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2513
2514    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2515        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2516
2517    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2518        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2519
2520    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2521        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2522        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2523        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2524        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2525        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2526
2527    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2528        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2530
2531    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2532        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2533            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2534        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2535
2536    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2538
2539    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2542        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2543        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2544        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2545
2546    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2549        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2550        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2551        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2552        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2553        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2554        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2555        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2556
2557    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2558        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2559        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2560        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2561        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2562
2563        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2564            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2565
2566        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2567
2568    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2569        return "BEGIN"
2570
2571    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2572        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2573        if chain is not None:
2574            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2575
2576        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2577
2578    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2579        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2580        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2581        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2582
2583    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585
2586        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2587        if dtype:
2588            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2589            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2590            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2591            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2592            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2593
2594        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2595        if default:
2596            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2597
2598        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2599            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2600
2601        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2602
2603    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2604        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2605            # Remove db from tables
2606            expression = expression.transform(
2607                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2608            )
2609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2610        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2611
2612    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2613        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2614
2615        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2616            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2617        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2618            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2619        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2620            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2621        else:
2622            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2623
2624        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2625        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2626        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2627
2628    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2629        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2630            return self.expressions(
2631                expression,
2632                key="actions",
2633                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2634            )
2635        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2636
2637    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2639        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2640        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2641
2642    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2645        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2646
2647        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2648        if enforced is not None:
2649            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2650
2651        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2652
2653    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2654        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2655        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2656
2657        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2658        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2659        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2660
2661    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2663
2664    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2666
2667    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2668        return self.sql(
2669            exp.Cast(
2670                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2671                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2672            )
2673        )
2674
2675    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2676        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2677            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2678        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2679
2680    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2681        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2682
2683        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2684            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2685
2686        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2687            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2688                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2689            ):
2690                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2691
2692        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2693            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2694                return self.sql(
2695                    exp.cast(
2696                        l / r,
2697                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2698                    )
2699                )
2700
2701        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2702
2703    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2705
2706    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2707        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2708
2709    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2711
2712    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2713        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2714
2715    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2716        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2717
2718    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2719        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2720
2721    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2722        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2723
2724    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2725        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2726
2727    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2728        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2729
2730    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2731        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2732
2733    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2734        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2735
2736    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2737        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2738            return self.sql(
2739                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2740            )
2741        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2742
2743    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2744        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2745
2746    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2747        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2748
2749    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2750        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2751
2752    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2753        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2754
2755    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2756        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2757
2758    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2759        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2760
2761    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2762        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2763
2764    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2765        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2766
2767    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2768        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2769
2770    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2771        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2772
2773    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2774        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2775
2776    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2777        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2778
2779    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2780        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2781
2782    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2783        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2784
2785    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2786        this = expression.this
2787        expr = expression.expression
2788
2789        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2790            this, expr = expr, this
2791
2792        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2793
2794    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2795        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2796        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2799        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2800
2801    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2802        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2803        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2804
2805    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2806        args = []
2807
2808        for key in expression.arg_types:
2809            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2810
2811            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2812                for value in arg_value:
2813                    args.append(value)
2814            elif arg_value is not None:
2815                args.append(arg_value)
2816
2817        if self.normalize_functions:
2818            name = expression.sql_name()
2819        else:
2820            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2821
2822        return self.func(name, *args)
2823
2824    def func(
2825        self,
2826        name: str,
2827        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2828        prefix: str = "(",
2829        suffix: str = ")",
2830    ) -> str:
2831        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2832
2833    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2834        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2835        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2836            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2837        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2838
2839    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2840        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2841
2842    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2843        return format_time(
2844            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2845            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2846            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2847        )
2848
2849    def expressions(
2850        self,
2851        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2852        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2853        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2854        flat: bool = False,
2855        indent: bool = True,
2856        skip_first: bool = False,
2857        sep: str = ", ",
2858        prefix: str = "",
2859    ) -> str:
2860        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2861
2862        if not expressions:
2863            return ""
2864
2865        if flat:
2866            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2867
2868        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2869
2870        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2871        pad = " " * self.pad
2872        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2873
2874        result_sqls = []
2875        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2876            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2877            if not sql:
2878                continue
2879
2880            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2881
2882            if self.pretty:
2883                if self.leading_comma:
2884                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2885                else:
2886                    result_sqls.append(
2887                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2888                    )
2889            else:
2890                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2891
2892        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2893        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2894
2895    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2896        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2897        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2898        if flat:
2899            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2900        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2901
2902    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2903        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2904        if not property_name:
2905            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2906        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2907
2908    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2909        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2910        op = self.seg(op)
2911        return self.query_modifiers(
2912            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2913        )
2914
2915    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2916        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2917
2918    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2919        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2920
2921    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2924        expressions = (
2925            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2926        )
2927        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2928
2929    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2932        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2933
2934    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2936
2937    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2938        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2939        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2940        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2941        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2942
2943        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2944        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2945            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2946            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2947                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2948        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2949            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2950                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2951            else:
2952                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2953        else:
2954            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2955        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2956
2957    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2958        table = expression.this
2959        table_alias = ""
2960
2961        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2962        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2963            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2964            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2965
2966        this = self.sql(table)
2967        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2968        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2969        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2970
2971        return self.prepend_ctes(
2972            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2973        )
2974
2975    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2976        if expression.args.get("format"):
2977            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2978
2979        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2980
2981    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2984        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2985        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2986        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2987
2988    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2991        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2992        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2993
2994    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2996
2997    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2998        return ""
2999
3000    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3002        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3003        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3004        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3005        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3006
3007    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3010
3011        if having:
3012            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3013
3014        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3015
3016    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3017        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3018        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3019        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3020        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3021        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3022        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3023        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3024        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3025        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3026        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3027        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3028        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3029        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3030
3031    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3032        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3033        if key_block_size:
3034            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3035
3036        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3037        if using:
3038            return f"USING {using}"
3039
3040        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3041        if parser:
3042            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3043
3044        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3045        if comment:
3046            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3047
3048        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3049        if visible is not None:
3050            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3051
3052        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3053        if engine_attr:
3054            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3055
3056        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3057        if secondary_engine_attr:
3058            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3059
3060        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3061        return ""
3062
3063    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3064        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3065        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3068        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3069        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3070        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3071        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3072        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3074        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3075
3076    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3077        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3078            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3079
3080        case = exp.Case().when(
3081            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3082            expression.args["true"],
3083            copy=False,
3084        )
3085        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3086        if else_cond:
3087            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3088
3089        return self.sql(case)
3090
3091    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3094        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3095        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3096        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3097        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3098
3099    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3100        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3101
3102    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3103        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3104
3105    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3106        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3107        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3108        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3109        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3110        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3111        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3112
3113    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3116        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3117
3118    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3120        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3121        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3122
3123    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3125
3126    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3127        arg = expression.this
3128        if not arg.type:
3129            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3130
3131            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3132
3133        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3134            return self.sql(arg)
3135
3136        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3137        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3138
3139    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3140        this = expression.this
3141        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3142            return self.sql(this)
3143
3144        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3145
3146    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3147        this = expression.this
3148        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3149
3150        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3151            return self.sql(
3152                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3153            )
3154
3155        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3156            return self.sql(this)
3157
3158        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3159
3160    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3161        return self.sql(
3162            exp.func(
3163                "DATEDIFF",
3164                expression.this,
3165                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3166                "day",
3167            )
3168        )
3169
3170    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3171        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3172            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3173
3174        unit = expression.text("unit")
3175        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3176            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3177
3178        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3179
3180    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3181        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3182            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3183
3184            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3185
3186        return expression
3187
3188    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3189        return [
3190            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3191            for value in values
3192            if value
3193        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
407    def __init__(
408        self,
409        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
410        identify: str | bool = False,
411        normalize: bool = False,
412        pad: int = 2,
413        indent: int = 2,
414        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
415        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
416        max_unsupported: int = 3,
417        leading_comma: bool = False,
418        max_text_width: int = 80,
419        comments: bool = True,
420        dialect: DialectType = None,
421    ):
422        import sqlglot
423        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
424
425        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
426        self.identify = identify
427        self.normalize = normalize
428        self.pad = pad
429        self._indent = indent
430        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
431        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
432        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
433        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
434        self.comments = comments
435        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
436
437        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
438        self.normalize_functions = (
439            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
440        )
441
442        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
443        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
444            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
445        )
446        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
447            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
448        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
450    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
451        """
452        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
453
454        Args:
455            expression: The syntax tree.
456            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
457                it is safer to copy.
458
459        Returns:
460            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
461        """
462        if copy:
463            expression = expression.copy()
464
465        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
466
467        self.unsupported_messages = []
468        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
469
470        if self.pretty:
471            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
472
473        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
474            return sql
475
476        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
477            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
478                logger.warning(msg)
479        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
480            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
481
482        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
484    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
485        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
486        if (
487            not expression.parent
488            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
489            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
490        ):
491            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
492
493            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
494
495        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
496            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
497
498            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
499
500        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
502    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
503        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
504            raise UnsupportedError(message)
505        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
507    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
508        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
510    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
511        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
513    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
514        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
515        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
516        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
518    def maybe_comment(
519        self,
520        sql: str,
521        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
522        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
523    ) -> str:
524        comments = (
525            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
526            if self.comments
527            else None
528        )
529
530        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
531            return sql
532
533        comments_sql = " ".join(
534            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
535        )
536
537        if not comments_sql:
538            return sql
539
540        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
541            return (
542                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
543                if sql[0].isspace()
544                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
545            )
546
547        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
549    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
550        this_sql = self.indent(
551            self.sql(expression)
552            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
553            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
554            level=1,
555            pad=0,
556        )
557        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
559    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
560        original = self.identify
561        self.identify = False
562        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
563        self.identify = original
564        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
566    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
567        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
568            return name.upper()
569        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
570            return name.lower()
571        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
573    def indent(
574        self,
575        sql: str,
576        level: int = 0,
577        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
578        skip_first: bool = False,
579        skip_last: bool = False,
580    ) -> str:
581        if not self.pretty:
582            return sql
583
584        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
585        lines = sql.split("\n")
586
587        return "\n".join(
588            line
589            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
590            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
591            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
592        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
594    def sql(
595        self,
596        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
597        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
598        comment: bool = True,
599    ) -> str:
600        if not expression:
601            return ""
602
603        if isinstance(expression, str):
604            return expression
605
606        if key:
607            value = expression.args.get(key)
608            if value:
609                return self.sql(value)
610            return ""
611
612        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
613
614        if callable(transform):
615            sql = transform(self, expression)
616        elif transform:
617            sql = transform
618        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
619            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
620
621            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
622                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
623            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
624                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
625            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
626                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
627            else:
628                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
629        else:
630            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
631
632        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
634    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
635        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
636        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
637        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
639    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
640        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
641        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
642        options = expression.args.get("options")
643        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
644        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
645        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
646        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
647        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
649    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
650        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
651            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
652        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
653        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
655    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
656        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
657
658        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
659            join_mark = ""
660            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
661
662        column = ".".join(
663            self.sql(part)
664            for part in (
665                expression.args.get("catalog"),
666                expression.args.get("db"),
667                expression.args.get("table"),
668                expression.args.get("this"),
669            )
670            if part
671        )
672
673        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
675    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
677        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
678        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
679        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
681    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
682        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
684        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
685        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
686        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
687        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
688        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
689        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
690
691        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
692            kind = ""
693
694        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
696    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
698        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
699        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
701    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
703        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
704            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
705        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
706            persisted = " PERSISTED"
707        else:
708            persisted = ""
709        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
711    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
712        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
714    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
715        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
716            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
717        else:
718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
719
720        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
722    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
723        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
724    ) -> str:
725        this = ""
726        if expression.this is not None:
727            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
728            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
729
730        start = expression.args.get("start")
731        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
732        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
733        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
734        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
735        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
736        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
737        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
738        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
739        cycle_sql = ""
740
741        if cycle is not None:
742            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
743            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
744
745        sequence_opts = ""
746        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
747            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
748            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
749
750        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
751        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
752
753        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
755    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
756        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
757    ) -> str:
758        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
759        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
760        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
762    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
763        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
764    ) -> str:
765        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
767    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
768        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
770    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
771        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
773    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
774        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
775        if desc is not None:
776            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
777        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
779    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
782        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
784        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
786    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
787        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
789    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
791        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
792        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
793
794        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
795
796        properties_sql = ""
797        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
798            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
799        ):
800            properties_sql = self.sql(
801                exp.Properties(
802                    expressions=[
803                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
804                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
805                    ]
806                )
807            )
808
809        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
810        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
811
812        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
813        if expression_sql:
814            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
815
816            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
817                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
818                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
819                        exp.Properties(
820                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
821                        ),
822                        wrapped=False,
823                    )
824                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
825                else:
826                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
827
828        postindex_props_sql = ""
829        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
830            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
831                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
832                wrapped=False,
833                prefix=" ",
834            )
835
836        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
837        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
838        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
839
840        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
841        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
842
843        postcreate_props_sql = ""
844        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
845            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
846                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
847                sep=" ",
848                prefix=" ",
849                wrapped=False,
850            )
851
852        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
853
854        postexpression_props_sql = ""
855        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
856            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
857                exp.Properties(
858                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
859                ),
860                sep=" ",
861                prefix=" ",
862                wrapped=False,
863            )
864
865        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
866        no_schema_binding = (
867            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
868        )
869
870        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
871        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
872
873        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
874        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
876    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
878        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
879        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
880        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
882    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
883        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
885    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
886        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
887        if with_:
888            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
889        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
891    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
892        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
893        recursive = (
894            "RECURSIVE "
895            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
896            else ""
897        )
898
899        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
901    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
902        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
903        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
905    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
906        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
907        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
908        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
909
910        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
911            alias = "_t"
912
913        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
915    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
917        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
918            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
919        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
921    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
923        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
924            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
925        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
927    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
929        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
930            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
931        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
933    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
935        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
936
937        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
938            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
939            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
940
941        if escape:
942            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
943        else:
944            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
945
946        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
947        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
949    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
950        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
951        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
953    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
955        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
956        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
957        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
959    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
960        type_value = expression.this
961
962        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
963            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
964        else:
965            type_sql = (
966                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
967                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
968                else type_value
969            )
970
971        nested = ""
972        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
973        values = ""
974
975        if interior:
976            if expression.args.get("nested"):
977                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
978                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
979                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
980                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
981                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
982            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
983                nested = f" {interior}"
984            else:
985                nested = f"({interior})"
986
987        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
988        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
990            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
991        ):
992            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
993
994        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
 996    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 997        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 998        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 999        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1000        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1002    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1004        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1005        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1006        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1007        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1008        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1009        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1010        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1011        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1012        if self.RETURNING_END:
1013            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1014        else:
1015            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1018    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1021        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1022        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1024        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1025        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1026        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1027        return (
1028            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1029        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1031    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1032        return self.prepend_ctes(
1033            expression,
1034            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1035        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1037    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1038        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1040    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1041        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1042        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1043        count = expression.args.get("count")
1044        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1045        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1046            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1047        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1048        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1050    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1051        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1052            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1053            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1054            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1055
1056        agg = expression.this
1057        agg_arg = agg.this
1058        cond = expression.expression.this
1059        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1060        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1062    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1063        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1064            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1065            return ""
1066
1067        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1069    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1070        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1071        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1072        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1073        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1075        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1076        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1077        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1078        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1079        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1080        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1081        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1082        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1083        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1084        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1085        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1087    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1088        text = expression.name
1089        lower = text.lower()
1090        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1091        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1092        if (
1093            expression.quoted
1094            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1095            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1096            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1097        ):
1098            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1099        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1101    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1102        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1103        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1104        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1105        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1106        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1108    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1109        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1110        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1112    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1113        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1115    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1116        root_properties = []
1117        with_properties = []
1118
1119        for p in expression.expressions:
1120            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1121            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1122                with_properties.append(p)
1123            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1124                root_properties.append(p)
1125
1126        return self.root_properties(
1127            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1128        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1130    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1131        if properties.expressions:
1132            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1133        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1135    def properties(
1136        self,
1137        properties: exp.Properties,
1138        prefix: str = "",
1139        sep: str = ", ",
1140        suffix: str = "",
1141        wrapped: bool = True,
1142    ) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1145            if expressions:
1146                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1147                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1148        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1150    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1151        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1153    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1154        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1155        for p in properties.expressions:
1156            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1157            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1158                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1159            else:
1160                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1161
1162        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1164    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1165        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1166            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1169    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1170        property_cls = expression.__class__
1171        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1172            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1173
1174        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1175        if not property_name:
1176            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1177
1178        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1180    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1181        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1185    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1186        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1187        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1188        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1190    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1191        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1192        local = expression.args.get("local")
1193        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1194        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1195        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1196        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1197        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1199    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1200        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1202        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1204    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("default"):
1206            property = "DEFAULT"
1207        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1208            property = "ON"
1209        else:
1210            property = "OFF"
1211        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1213    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("no"):
1215            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1216        if expression.args.get("default"):
1217            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1218
1219        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1220        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1222    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1223        default = expression.args.get("default")
1224        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1225        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1226        if default or minimum or maximum:
1227            if default:
1228                prop = "DEFAULT"
1229            elif minimum:
1230                prop = "MINIMUM"
1231            else:
1232                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1233            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1234        units = expression.args.get("units")
1235        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1236        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1238    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1239        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1240        always = expression.args.get("always")
1241        default = expression.args.get("default")
1242        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1243        never = expression.args.get("never")
1244
1245        if autotemp is not None:
1246            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1247        elif always:
1248            prop = "ALWAYS"
1249        elif default:
1250            prop = "DEFAULT"
1251        elif manual:
1252            prop = "MANUAL"
1253        elif never:
1254            prop = "NEVER"
1255        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1257    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1258        no = expression.args.get("no")
1259        no = " NO" if no else ""
1260        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1261        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1262
1263        for_ = ""
1264        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1265            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1266        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1267            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1268        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1269            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1270        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1272    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1273        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1274            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1275        if expression.this:
1276            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1278            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1279
1280        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1281        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1282        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1284    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286
1287        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1288        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1289            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1290        else:
1291            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1292
1293        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1295    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1296        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1297        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1298        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1299        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1300        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1301        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1302        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1304    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1305        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1306        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1307        statistics_sql = ""
1308        if statistics is not None:
1309            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1310        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1312    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1313        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1318
1319            if expression.expression:
1320                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1321                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1322
1323            sql = f"{sql})"
1324
1325        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1327    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1328        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1329
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1331            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1332        else:
1333            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1334
1335        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1336        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1337        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1338
1339        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1340
1341        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1342        partition_sql = (
1343            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1344        )
1345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1347        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1348        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1349        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1350        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1351
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1356
1357        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1360    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1361        return self.prepend_ctes(
1362            expression,
1363            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1364        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1366    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1367        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1369    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1372    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1374        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1377        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1379    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1380        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1382    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1383        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1385    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1386        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1387        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1388        if constraint:
1389            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1390        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1391        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1392        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1393        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1394        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1395        if expressions:
1396            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1397        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1399    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1400        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1402    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1403        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1404        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1405        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1406        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1407        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1408        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1409        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1410        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1411        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1412        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1413        null = expression.args.get("null")
1414        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1415        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1417    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1418        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1420    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1421        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1422        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1423        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1424        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1426    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1428        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1429        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1430        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1432    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1433        table = ".".join(
1434            self.sql(part)
1435            for part in (
1436                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1437                expression.args.get("db"),
1438                expression.args.get("this"),
1439            )
1440            if part is not None
1441        )
1442
1443        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1444        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1445        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1446        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1447        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1448        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1449        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1450        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1451        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1452        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1453
1454        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1455        if file_format:
1456            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1457            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1458            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1459
1460        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1461        if ordinality:
1462            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1463            alias = ""
1464
1465        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1466        if when:
1467            table = f"{table} {when}"
1468
1469        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1471    def tablesample_sql(
1472        self,
1473        expression: exp.TableSample,
1474        sep: str = " AS ",
1475        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1476    ) -> str:
1477        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1478            table = expression.this.copy()
1479            table.set("alias", None)
1480            this = self.sql(table)
1481            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1482        else:
1483            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484            alias = ""
1485
1486        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1487        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1488        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1489        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1490        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1491        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1492        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1493        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1494        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1495
1496        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1497        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1498            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1499
1500        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1501        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1502            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1503
1504        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1505        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1506            expr = f"({expr})"
1507
1508        return (
1509            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1510        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1512    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1514
1515        if expression.this:
1516            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1517            if not expressions:
1518                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1519
1520            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1521            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1522            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1523            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1524            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1525
1526        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1527        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1528        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1529        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1530        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1531        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1532        if include_nulls is not None:
1533            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1534        else:
1535            nulls = ""
1536        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1538    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1539        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1540        kind = expression.text("kind")
1541        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1542        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1544    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1545        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1547    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1549        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1550        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1551        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1552        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1553        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1554        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1555        if self.RETURNING_END:
1556            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1557        else:
1558            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1559        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1560        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1562    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1563        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1564        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1565            args = self.expressions(expression)
1566            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1567            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1568            values = (
1569                f"({values})"
1570                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1571                else values
1572            )
1573            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1574
1575        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1576        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1577        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1578
1579        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1580
1581        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1582            row = tup.expressions
1583
1584            if i == 0 and column_names:
1585                row = [
1586                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1587                ]
1588
1589            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1590
1591        if self.pretty:
1592            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1593            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1594            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1595            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1596            return self.subquery_sql(
1597                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1598            )
1599
1600        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1601        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1602        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1604    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1605        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1607    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1608        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1609        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1610        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1612    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1613        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1615    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1616        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1617
1618        if expression.args.get("all"):
1619            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1620
1621        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1622        grouping_sets = (
1623            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1624        )
1625
1626        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1627        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1628            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1629        else:
1630            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1631            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1632
1633        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1634        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1635            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1636        else:
1637            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1638            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1639
1640        groupings = csv(
1641            grouping_sets,
1642            cube_sql,
1643            rollup_sql,
1644            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1645            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1646        )
1647
1648        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1649            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1650
1651        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1653    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1654        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1655        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1657    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1658        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1659        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1660        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1661        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1662        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1664    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1665        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1667    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1668        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1669            side = None
1670        else:
1671            side = expression.side
1672
1673        op_sql = " ".join(
1674            op
1675            for op in (
1676                expression.method,
1677                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1678                side,
1679                expression.kind,
1680                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1681            )
1682            if op
1683        )
1684        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1685        using = expression.args.get("using")
1686
1687        if not on_sql and using:
1688            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1689
1690        this = expression.this
1691        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1692
1693        if on_sql:
1694            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1695            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1696            if using:
1697                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1698            else:
1699                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1700        elif not op_sql:
1701            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1702                return f" {this_sql}"
1703
1704            return f", {this_sql}"
1705
1706        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1707        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1709    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1710        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1711        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1712        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1714    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1715        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1716
1717        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1718        if cross_apply is True:
1719            op = "INNER JOIN "
1720        elif cross_apply is False:
1721            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1722        else:
1723            op = ""
1724
1725        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1727    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729
1730        if expression.args.get("view"):
1731            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1732            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1733            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1734            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1735            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1736            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1737
1738        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1739        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1740        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1742    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744
1745        args = [
1746            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1747            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1748            if e
1749        ]
1750
1751        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1752        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1753        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1755    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757        expression = expression.expression
1758        expression = (
1759            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1760        )
1761        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1763    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1764        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1765        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1768        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1769        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1770        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1771        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1773    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1774        expressions = (
1775            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1776        )
1777        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1778        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1780    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1781        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1783    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1784        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1785            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1786            return ""
1787
1788        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1789        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1790        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1791        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1792
1793        if wait is not None:
1794            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1795                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1796            else:
1797                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1798
1799        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1801    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1802        text = expression.this or ""
1803        if expression.is_string:
1804            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1805        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1807    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1808        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1809        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1810            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1811        elif self.pretty:
1812            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1813        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1815    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1816        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1817        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1818        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1819        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1820        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1821        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1822        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1823        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1824        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1825        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1826        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1828    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1829        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1831    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1832        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1834    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1836        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1837        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1838        interpolated_values = [
1839            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1840            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1841        ]
1842        interpolate = (
1843            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1844        )
1845        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
1847    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1848        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1849        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1850        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1851        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1852        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1853        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1854        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1856    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1857        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1859    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1860        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1862    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1863        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1865    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1866        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1867        asc = not desc
1868
1869        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1870        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1871        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1872        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1873        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1874
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876
1877        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1878        nulls_sort_change = ""
1879        if nulls_first and (
1880            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1881        ):
1882            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1883        elif (
1884            nulls_last
1885            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1886            and not nulls_are_last
1887        ):
1888            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1889
1890        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1891        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1892            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1893            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1894            nulls_sort_change = ""
1895
1896        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1897        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1898
1899        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1901    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1902        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1903        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1904        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1905        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1906        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1907        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1908        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1909        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1910        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1911        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1912        definition_sqls = [
1913            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1914            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1915        ]
1916        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1917        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1918        body = "".join(
1919            (
1920                partition,
1921                order,
1922                measures,
1923                rows,
1924                after,
1925                pattern,
1926                define,
1927            )
1928        )
1929        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1930        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1931        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1933    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1934        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1935
1936        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1937        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1938
1939        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1940            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1941        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1942            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1943
1944        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1945
1946        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1947            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1948            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1949            else []
1950        )
1951
1952        return csv(
1953            *sqls,
1954            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1955            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1956            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1957            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1958            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1959            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1960            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1961            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1962            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1963            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1964            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1965            sep="",
1966        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1968    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1969        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1970    ) -> t.List[str]:
1971        return [
1972            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1973            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1974        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1976    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1977        return [
1978            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1979            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1980            if expression.args.get("windows")
1981            else "",
1982            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1983            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1984            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1985        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1987    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1988        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1989        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1990        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1992    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1993        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1994        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1995        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1997        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1998        top = (
1999            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2000            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2001            else ""
2002        )
2003
2004        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2005
2006        if kind:
2007            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2008                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2009            else:
2010                if kind == "STRUCT":
2011                    expressions = self.expressions(
2012                        sqls=[
2013                            self.sql(
2014                                exp.Struct(
2015                                    expressions=[
2016                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2017                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2018                                        )
2019                                        for e in expression.expressions
2020                                    ]
2021                                )
2022                            )
2023                        ]
2024                    )
2025                kind = ""
2026
2027        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2028        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2029        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2030        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2031        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2032            expression,
2033            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2034            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2035            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2036        )
2037        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2039    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2042        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2044    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2045        if expression.expressions:
2046            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2047        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2049    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2050        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2051        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2052        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2053        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2054        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2056    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2060    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        kind = expression.text("kind")
2063        if kind:
2064            kind = f"{kind}."
2065        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2067    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2068        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2070    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2071        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2072        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2073
2074        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2075        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2076
2077        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2078        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2080    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2081        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2082        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2084    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2085        return self.prepend_ctes(
2086            expression,
2087            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2088        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2090    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2091        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2092        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2093        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2094        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2096    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2097        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2098
2099        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2100        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2101
2102        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2103            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2104                alias.append("columns", offset)
2105
2106        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2107            columns = alias.columns
2108            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2109        else:
2110            alias = self.sql(alias)
2111
2112        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2113        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2114            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2115        else:
2116            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2117                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2118            elif offset:
2119                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2120            else:
2121                suffix = alias
2122
2123        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2125    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2126        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2127        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2129    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2132        order = expression.args.get("order")
2133        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2134        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2135        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2136        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2137
2138        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2139
2140        first = expression.args.get("first")
2141        if first is None:
2142            first = ""
2143        else:
2144            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2145
2146        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2147            return f"{this} {alias}"
2148
2149        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2150        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2152    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2153        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2154        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2156    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2157        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2158        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2159        end = (
2160            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2161            or "CURRENT ROW"
2162        )
2163        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2165    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2167        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2168        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2170    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2173        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2174        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2176    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2177        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2178            expression.this,
2179            expression.expressions,
2180            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2181        )
2182        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2185    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2186        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2188    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2191            this = self.wrap(this)
2192        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2194    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2195        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2197    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2199        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2200
2201        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2202            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2203            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2204
2205        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2206
2207        if default:
2208            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2209
2210        statements.append("END")
2211
2212        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2213            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2214
2215        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2217    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2220        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2222    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2223        order = expression.args.get("order")
2224        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2225        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2227    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2229        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2230        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2232    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2233        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2234
2235        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2236            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2237        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2238            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2239        else:
2240            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2242    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2243        args = expression.expressions
2244        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2245            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2246
2247        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2248            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2249
2250        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2251            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2252
2253        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2255    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2256        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2257
2258        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2259        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2260            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2261
2262        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2264    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2265        return self.func(
2266            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2267        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2269    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2271        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2273    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2274        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2275        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2276        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2277        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2278        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2279        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2280        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2281        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2283    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2284        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2285        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2286        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2287        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2289    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2290        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2292    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2293        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2294        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2295        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2297    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2300    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2303    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2304        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2305        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2306        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2307        if unique_keys is not None:
2308            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2309        else:
2310            unique_keys = ""
2311        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2312        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2313        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2314        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2315        return self.func(
2316            "JSON_OBJECT",
2317            *expression.expressions,
2318            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2319        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2321    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2322        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2323        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2324        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2325        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2326        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2327        return self.func(
2328            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2329        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2331    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2334        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2335        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2336        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2337        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2338        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2339        return self.func(
2340            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2341            this,
2342            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2343        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2345    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2346        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2347        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2348        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2349
2350        if nested_schema:
2351            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2352
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2355        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2356        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2358    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2359        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2361    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2364        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2365        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2366        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2367        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2368        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2369        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2370        return self.func(
2371            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2372        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2374    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2376        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2377        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2378        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2379        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2380        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2382    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2385        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2386        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2387        with_ = (
2388            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2389            if expressions
2390            else ""
2391        )
2392        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2394    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2395        query = expression.args.get("query")
2396        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2397        field = expression.args.get("field")
2398        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2399
2400        if query:
2401            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2402        elif unnest:
2403            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2404        elif field:
2405            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2406        else:
2407            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2408
2409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2411    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2412        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2414    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2415        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2416        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2417            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2418        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2419
2420        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2421            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2422            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2423
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        if this:
2426            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2427            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2428
2429        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2431    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2432        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2434    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2437        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2438        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2439        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2440        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2442    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2443        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2445    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2446        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2447            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2448        else:
2449            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2450            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2451
2452        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2454    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2455        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2456        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2458        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2460    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2461        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2463    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2464        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2465        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2468    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2469        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2471    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2473        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2474        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2476    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2479        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2481    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2484    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2485        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2487    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2488        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2490    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2491        if not self.pretty:
2492            return self.binary(expression, op)
2493
2494        sqls = tuple(
2495            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2496            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2497        )
2498
2499        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2500        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2502    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2503        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2505    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2506        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2508    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2509        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2511    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2512        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2514    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2515        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2517    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2518        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2520    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2521        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2522        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2523        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2524        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2525        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2527    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2528        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2531    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2532        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2533            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2534        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2536    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2539    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2542        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2543        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2544        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2546    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2549        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2550        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2551        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2552        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2553        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2554        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2555        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2557    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2558        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2559        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2560        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2561        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2562
2563        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2564            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2565
2566        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2568    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2569        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2571    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2572        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2573        if chain is not None:
2574            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2575
2576        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2578    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2579        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2580        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2581        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2583    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585
2586        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2587        if dtype:
2588            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2589            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2590            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2591            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2592            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2593
2594        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2595        if default:
2596            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2597
2598        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2599            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2600
2601        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2603    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2604        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2605            # Remove db from tables
2606            expression = expression.transform(
2607                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2608            )
2609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2610        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2612    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2613        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2614
2615        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2616            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2617        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2618            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2619        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2620            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2621        else:
2622            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2623
2624        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2625        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2626        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2628    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2629        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2630            return self.expressions(
2631                expression,
2632                key="actions",
2633                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2634            )
2635        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2637    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2639        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2640        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2642    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2645        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2646
2647        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2648        if enforced is not None:
2649            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2650
2651        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2653    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2654        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2655        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2656
2657        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2658        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2659        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2661    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2664    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2667    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2668        return self.sql(
2669            exp.Cast(
2670                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2671                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2672            )
2673        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2675    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2676        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2677            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2678        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2680    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2681        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2682
2683        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2684            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2685
2686        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2687            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2688                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2689            ):
2690                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2691
2692        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2693            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2694                return self.sql(
2695                    exp.cast(
2696                        l / r,
2697                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2698                    )
2699                )
2700
2701        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2703    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2706    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2707        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2709    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2712    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2713        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2715    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2716        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2718    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2719        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2721    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2722        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2724    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2725        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2727    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2728        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2730    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2731        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2733    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2734        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2736    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2737        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2738            return self.sql(
2739                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2740            )
2741        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2743    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2744        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2746    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2747        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2749    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2750        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2752    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2753        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2755    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2756        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2758    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2759        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2761    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2762        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2764    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2765        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2767    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2768        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2770    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2771        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2773    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2774        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2776    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2777        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2779    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2780        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2782    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2783        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2785    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2786        this = expression.this
2787        expr = expression.expression
2788
2789        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2790            this, expr = expr, this
2791
2792        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2794    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2795        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2796        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2799        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2801    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2802        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2803        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2805    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2806        args = []
2807
2808        for key in expression.arg_types:
2809            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2810
2811            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2812                for value in arg_value:
2813                    args.append(value)
2814            elif arg_value is not None:
2815                args.append(arg_value)
2816
2817        if self.normalize_functions:
2818            name = expression.sql_name()
2819        else:
2820            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2821
2822        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2824    def func(
2825        self,
2826        name: str,
2827        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2828        prefix: str = "(",
2829        suffix: str = ")",
2830    ) -> str:
2831        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2833    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2834        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2835        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2836            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2837        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2839    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2840        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2842    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2843        return format_time(
2844            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2845            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2846            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2847        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2849    def expressions(
2850        self,
2851        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2852        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2853        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2854        flat: bool = False,
2855        indent: bool = True,
2856        skip_first: bool = False,
2857        sep: str = ", ",
2858        prefix: str = "",
2859    ) -> str:
2860        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2861
2862        if not expressions:
2863            return ""
2864
2865        if flat:
2866            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2867
2868        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2869
2870        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2871        pad = " " * self.pad
2872        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2873
2874        result_sqls = []
2875        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2876            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2877            if not sql:
2878                continue
2879
2880            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2881
2882            if self.pretty:
2883                if self.leading_comma:
2884                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2885                else:
2886                    result_sqls.append(
2887                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2888                    )
2889            else:
2890                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2891
2892        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2893        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2895    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2896        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2897        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2898        if flat:
2899            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2900        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2902    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2903        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2904        if not property_name:
2905            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2906        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2908    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2909        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2910        op = self.seg(op)
2911        return self.query_modifiers(
2912            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2913        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2915    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2916        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2918    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2919        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2921    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2924        expressions = (
2925            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2926        )
2927        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2929    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2932        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2934    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2937    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2938        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2939        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2940        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2941        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2942
2943        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2944        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2945            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2946            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2947                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2948        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2949            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2950                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2951            else:
2952                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2953        else:
2954            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2955        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2957    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2958        table = expression.this
2959        table_alias = ""
2960
2961        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2962        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2963            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2964            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2965
2966        this = self.sql(table)
2967        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2968        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2969        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2970
2971        return self.prepend_ctes(
2972            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2973        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2975    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2976        if expression.args.get("format"):
2977            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2978
2979        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2981    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2984        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2985        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2986        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2988    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2991        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2992        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2994    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2997    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2998        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3000    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3002        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3003        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3004        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3005        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3007    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3010
3011        if having:
3012            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3013
3014        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3016    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3017        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3018        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3019        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3020        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3021        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3022        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3023        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3024        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3025        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3026        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3027        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3028        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3029        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3031    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3032        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3033        if key_block_size:
3034            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3035
3036        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3037        if using:
3038            return f"USING {using}"
3039
3040        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3041        if parser:
3042            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3043
3044        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3045        if comment:
3046            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3047
3048        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3049        if visible is not None:
3050            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3051
3052        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3053        if engine_attr:
3054            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3055
3056        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3057        if secondary_engine_attr:
3058            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3059
3060        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3061        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3063    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3064        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3065        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3068        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3069        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3070        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3071        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3072        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3074        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3076    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3077        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3078            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3079
3080        case = exp.Case().when(
3081            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3082            expression.args["true"],
3083            copy=False,
3084        )
3085        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3086        if else_cond:
3087            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3088
3089        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3091    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3094        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3095        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3096        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3097        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3099    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3100        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3102    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3103        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3105    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3106        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3107        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3108        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3109        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3110        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3111        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3113    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3116        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3118    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3120        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3121        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3123    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3126    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3127        arg = expression.this
3128        if not arg.type:
3129            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3130
3131            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3132
3133        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3134            return self.sql(arg)
3135
3136        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3137        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3139    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3140        this = expression.this
3141        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3142            return self.sql(this)
3143
3144        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3146    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3147        this = expression.this
3148        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3149
3150        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3151            return self.sql(
3152                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3153            )
3154
3155        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3156            return self.sql(this)
3157
3158        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3160    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3161        return self.sql(
3162            exp.func(
3163                "DATEDIFF",
3164                expression.this,
3165                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3166                "day",
3167            )
3168        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3170    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3171        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3172            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3173
3174        unit = expression.text("unit")
3175        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3176            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3177
3178        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)