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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 104    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 107    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 108
 109    # Always do union distinct or union all
 110    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 111
 112    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 113    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 116    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 119    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 122    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 125    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 128    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 131    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 134    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 135
 136    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 137    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 138
 139    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 140    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 141
 142    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 143    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 144
 145    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 146    JOIN_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 149    TABLE_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 152    QUERY_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 155    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 156
 157    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 158    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 161    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 164    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 167    RETURNING_END = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 170    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 173    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 176    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 179    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 180
 181    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 182    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 183
 184    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 185    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 186    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 187    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 188
 189    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 190        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 197    }
 198
 199    STAR_MAPPING = {
 200        "except": "EXCEPT",
 201        "replace": "REPLACE",
 202    }
 203
 204    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 205        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 206        "seconds": "second",
 207        "minutes": "minute",
 208        "hours": "hour",
 209        "days": "day",
 210        "weeks": "week",
 211        "months": "month",
 212        "quarters": "quarter",
 213        "years": "year",
 214    }
 215
 216    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 217
 218    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 219
 220    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 221
 222    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 223        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 245        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 251        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 252        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 254        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 257        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 259        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 261        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 279        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280    }
 281
 282    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 283    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 284
 285    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 286    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 287        exp.Create,
 288        exp.Delete,
 289        exp.Drop,
 290        exp.From,
 291        exp.Insert,
 292        exp.Join,
 293        exp.Select,
 294        exp.Update,
 295        exp.Where,
 296        exp.With,
 297    )
 298
 299    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 300    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 301        exp.Column,
 302        exp.Literal,
 303        exp.Neg,
 304        exp.Paren,
 305    )
 306
 307    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 308
 309    # Autofilled
 310    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 311    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 312    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 313    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 314    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 315    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 316    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 317    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 318    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 319    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 320
 321    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 322
 323    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 324    QUOTE_START = "'"
 325    QUOTE_END = "'"
 326    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 327    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 328    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 329
 330    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 331    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337
 338    __slots__ = (
 339        "pretty",
 340        "identify",
 341        "normalize",
 342        "pad",
 343        "_indent",
 344        "normalize_functions",
 345        "unsupported_level",
 346        "max_unsupported",
 347        "leading_comma",
 348        "max_text_width",
 349        "comments",
 350        "unsupported_messages",
 351        "_escaped_quote_end",
 352        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 353        "_cache",
 354    )
 355
 356    def __init__(
 357        self,
 358        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 359        identify: str | bool = False,
 360        normalize: bool = False,
 361        pad: int = 2,
 362        indent: int = 2,
 363        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 364        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 365        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 366        leading_comma: bool = False,
 367        max_text_width: int = 80,
 368        comments: bool = True,
 369    ):
 370        import sqlglot
 371
 372        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 373        self.identify = identify
 374        self.normalize = normalize
 375        self.pad = pad
 376        self._indent = indent
 377        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 378        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 379        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 380        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 381        self.comments = comments
 382
 383        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 384        self.normalize_functions = (
 385            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 386        )
 387
 388        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 389        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 390        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 391            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 392        )
 393        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 394
 395    def generate(
 396        self,
 397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 398        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 399    ) -> str:
 400        """
 401        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 402
 403        Args:
 404            expression: The syntax tree.
 405            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 406                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 407
 408        Returns:
 409            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 410        """
 411        if cache is not None:
 412            self._cache = cache
 413
 414        self.unsupported_messages = []
 415        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 416        self._cache = None
 417
 418        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 422            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 423                logger.warning(msg)
 424        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 425            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 426
 427        if self.pretty:
 428            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 429        return sql
 430
 431    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 432        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 433            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 434        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 435
 436    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 437        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 438
 439    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 440        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 441
 442    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 443        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 444        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 445        return comment
 446
 447    def maybe_comment(
 448        self,
 449        sql: str,
 450        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 451        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 452    ) -> str:
 453        comments = (
 454            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 455            if self.comments
 456            else None
 457        )
 458
 459        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 460            return sql
 461
 462        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 463        comments_sql = sep.join(
 464            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 465        )
 466
 467        if not comments_sql:
 468            return sql
 469
 470        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 471            return (
 472                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 473                if sql[0].isspace()
 474                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 475            )
 476
 477        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 478
 479    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 480        this_sql = self.indent(
 481            self.sql(expression)
 482            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 483            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 484            level=1,
 485            pad=0,
 486        )
 487        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 488
 489    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 490        original = self.identify
 491        self.identify = False
 492        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 493        self.identify = original
 494        return result
 495
 496    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 497        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 498            return name.upper()
 499        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 500            return name.lower()
 501        return name
 502
 503    def indent(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        level: int = 0,
 507        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 508        skip_first: bool = False,
 509        skip_last: bool = False,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        if not self.pretty:
 512            return sql
 513
 514        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 515        lines = sql.split("\n")
 516
 517        return "\n".join(
 518            line
 519            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 520            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 521            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 522        )
 523
 524    def sql(
 525        self,
 526        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 527        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 528        comment: bool = True,
 529    ) -> str:
 530        if not expression:
 531            return ""
 532
 533        if isinstance(expression, str):
 534            return expression
 535
 536        if key:
 537            value = expression.args.get(key)
 538            if value:
 539                return self.sql(value)
 540            return ""
 541
 542        if self._cache is not None:
 543            expression_id = hash(expression)
 544
 545            if expression_id in self._cache:
 546                return self._cache[expression_id]
 547
 548        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 549
 550        if callable(transform):
 551            sql = transform(self, expression)
 552        elif transform:
 553            sql = transform
 554        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 555            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 556
 557            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 558                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 559            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 560                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 561            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 562                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 563            else:
 564                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 565        else:
 566            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 567
 568        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 569
 570        if self._cache is not None:
 571            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 572        return sql
 573
 574    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 577        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 578
 579    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 580        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 581        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 582        options = expression.args.get("options")
 583        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 584        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 585        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 586        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 588
 589    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 590        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 591            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 592        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 593        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 594
 595    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 596        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 597
 598        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 599            join_mark = ""
 600            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 601
 602        column = ".".join(
 603            self.sql(part)
 604            for part in (
 605                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 606                expression.args.get("db"),
 607                expression.args.get("table"),
 608                expression.args.get("this"),
 609            )
 610            if part
 611        )
 612
 613        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 614
 615    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 617        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 618        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 619        return f"{position}{this}"
 620
 621    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 622        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 624        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 625        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 626        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 627        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 628        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 629        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 630
 631        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 632
 633    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 636        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 637
 638    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 640        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 641            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 642        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 643            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 644        else:
 645            persisted = ""
 646        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 647
 648    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 649        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 650
 651    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 652        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 653            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 654        else:
 655            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656
 657        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 658
 659    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 660        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 661    ) -> str:
 662        this = ""
 663        if expression.this is not None:
 664            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 665            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 666
 667        start = expression.args.get("start")
 668        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 669        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 670        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 671        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 672        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 673        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 674        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 675        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 676        cycle_sql = ""
 677
 678        if cycle is not None:
 679            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 680            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 681
 682        sequence_opts = ""
 683        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 684            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 685            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 686
 687        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 688        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 689
 690        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 691
 692    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 694
 695    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 697        if desc is not None:
 698            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 699        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 700
 701    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 704        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 705
 706    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 707        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 708
 709    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 711        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 712        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 713
 714        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 715
 716        properties_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 718            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 719        ):
 720            properties_sql = self.sql(
 721                exp.Properties(
 722                    expressions=[
 723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 725                    ]
 726                )
 727            )
 728
 729        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 731        if expression_sql:
 732            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 733
 734            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 735                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 736                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                        exp.Properties(
 738                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 739                        ),
 740                        wrapped=False,
 741                    )
 742                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 743                else:
 744                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 745
 746        postindex_props_sql = ""
 747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 748            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 750                wrapped=False,
 751                prefix=" ",
 752            )
 753
 754        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 755        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 756        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 757
 758        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 759        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 760
 761        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 762        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 763            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 764                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 765                sep=" ",
 766                prefix=" ",
 767                wrapped=False,
 768            )
 769
 770        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 771
 772        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 773        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 774            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 775                exp.Properties(
 776                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 777                ),
 778                sep=" ",
 779                prefix=" ",
 780                wrapped=False,
 781            )
 782
 783        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 784        no_schema_binding = (
 785            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 786        )
 787
 788        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 789        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 790
 791        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 793
 794    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 797
 798        if when:
 799            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 800            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 801            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 802
 803        return f"CLONE {this}"
 804
 805    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 806        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 807
 808    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 809        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 810        if with_:
 811            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 812        return sql
 813
 814    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 815        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 816        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 817
 818        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 819
 820    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 821        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 822        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 823
 824    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 825        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 827        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 828        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 829
 830    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        if self.BIT_START:
 833            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 834        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 835
 836    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        if self.HEX_START:
 839            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 840        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 841
 842    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if self.BYTE_START:
 845            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 846        return this
 847
 848    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 849        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 850        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 851
 852    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 855        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 856        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 857
 858    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 859        type_value = expression.this
 860
 861        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 862            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 863        else:
 864            type_sql = (
 865                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 866                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 867                else type_value
 868            )
 869
 870        nested = ""
 871        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 872        values = ""
 873
 874        if interior:
 875            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 876                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 877                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 878                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 879                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 880                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 881            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 882                nested = f" {interior}"
 883            else:
 884                nested = f"({interior})"
 885
 886        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 887        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 888            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 890        ):
 891            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 892
 893        return type_sql
 894
 895    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 896        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 897        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 898        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 899        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 900
 901    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 904        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 905        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 906        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 907        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 908        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 909        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 910        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 911        if self.RETURNING_END:
 912            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 913        else:
 914            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 915        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 916
 917    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 920        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 921        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 923        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 924        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 925        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 926        return (
 927            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 928        )
 929
 930    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 931        return self.prepend_ctes(
 932            expression,
 933            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 934        )
 935
 936    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 937        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 938
 939    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 940        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 941        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 942        count = expression.args.get("count")
 943        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 944        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 945            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 946        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 947        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 948
 949    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 951        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 952        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 953
 954    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 955        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 956            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 957            return ""
 958
 959        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 960
 961    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 962        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 963        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 964        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 965        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 967        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 968        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 969        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 970        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 971        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 972        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 973        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 974        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 975        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 976        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 977
 978    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 979        text = expression.name
 980        lower = text.lower()
 981        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 982        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 983        if (
 984            expression.quoted
 985            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 986            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 987            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 988        ):
 989            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 990        return text
 991
 992    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 993        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 994        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 995        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 996        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 997        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 998
 999    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1000        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1001        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1002
1003    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1004        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1005
1006    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1007        root_properties = []
1008        with_properties = []
1009
1010        for p in expression.expressions:
1011            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1012            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1013                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1015                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1016
1017        return self.root_properties(
1018            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1019        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1020
1021    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1022        if properties.expressions:
1023            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        return ""
1025
1026    def properties(
1027        self,
1028        properties: exp.Properties,
1029        prefix: str = "",
1030        sep: str = ", ",
1031        suffix: str = "",
1032        wrapped: bool = True,
1033    ) -> str:
1034        if properties.expressions:
1035            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1036            if expressions:
1037                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1038                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1039        return ""
1040
1041    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1042        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1043
1044    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1045        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1046        for p in properties.expressions:
1047            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1048            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1049                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1050            else:
1051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1052
1053        return properties_locs
1054
1055    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1056        property_cls = expression.__class__
1057        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1058            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1059
1060        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1061        if not property_name:
1062            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1063
1064        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1065
1066    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1068        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1069        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1070
1071    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1073        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1074        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1075
1076    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1078        local = expression.args.get("local")
1079        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1080        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1081        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1082        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1083        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1084
1085    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1089
1090    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091        if expression.args.get("default"):
1092            property = "DEFAULT"
1093        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1094            property = "ON"
1095        else:
1096            property = "OFF"
1097        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1098
1099    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100        if expression.args.get("no"):
1101            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1102        if expression.args.get("default"):
1103            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1104
1105        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1106        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1107
1108    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1111        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1112        if default or minimum or maximum:
1113            if default:
1114                prop = "DEFAULT"
1115            elif minimum:
1116                prop = "MINIMUM"
1117            else:
1118                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1119            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1120        units = expression.args.get("units")
1121        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1122        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1123
1124    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1126        always = expression.args.get("always")
1127        default = expression.args.get("default")
1128        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1129        never = expression.args.get("never")
1130
1131        if autotemp is not None:
1132            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1133        elif always:
1134            prop = "ALWAYS"
1135        elif default:
1136            prop = "DEFAULT"
1137        elif manual:
1138            prop = "MANUAL"
1139        elif never:
1140            prop = "NEVER"
1141        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1142
1143    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144        no = expression.args.get("no")
1145        no = " NO" if no else ""
1146        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1147        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1148
1149        for_ = ""
1150        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1151            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1152        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1153            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1154        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1155            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1156        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1157
1158    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1160        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1161        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1162        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1163        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1164        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1165
1166    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1168        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1169        statistics_sql = ""
1170        if statistics is not None:
1171            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1172        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1173
1174    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1175        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1176
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1178            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1179        else:
1180            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1181
1182        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1183        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1184        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1185
1186        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1187
1188        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1189        partition_sql = (
1190            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1191        )
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1194        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1195        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1196        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1197
1198        if self.RETURNING_END:
1199            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1200        else:
1201            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1202
1203        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1204        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1205
1206    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(
1208            expression,
1209            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1210        )
1211
1212    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1213        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1214
1215    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1216        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1217
1218    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1219        return expression.name.upper()
1220
1221    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1222        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1223        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1224        if constraint:
1225            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1226        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1227        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1228        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1229        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1230        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1231        if expressions:
1232            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1233        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1234
1235    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1236        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1237
1238    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1239        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1240        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1241        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1242        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1243        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1244        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1245        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1246        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1247        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1248        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1249        null = expression.args.get("null")
1250        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1251        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1252
1253    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1254        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1255
1256    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1257        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1258        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1259        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1260        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1261
1262    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1263        table = ".".join(
1264            part
1265            for part in [
1266                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1267                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1269            ]
1270            if part
1271        )
1272
1273        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1274        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1275        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1276        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1277        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1278        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1279        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1280        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1281        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1282        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1283
1284        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1285
1286    def tablesample_sql(
1287        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1288    ) -> str:
1289        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1290            table = expression.this.copy()
1291            table.set("alias", None)
1292            this = self.sql(table)
1293            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1294        else:
1295            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1296            alias = ""
1297        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1298        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1299        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1300        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1301        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1302        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1303        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1304        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1305        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1306        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1307        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1308        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1309        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1310            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1311        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1312        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1313        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1314        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1315
1316    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1317        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1318
1319        if expression.this:
1320            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1322            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1323            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1324            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1325            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1326
1327        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1328        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1329        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1330        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1331        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1332        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1333        if include_nulls is not None:
1334            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1335        else:
1336            nulls = ""
1337        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1338
1339    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1340        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1341
1342    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1345        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1346        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1347        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1348        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1349        if self.RETURNING_END:
1350            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1351        else:
1352            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1353        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1355
1356    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1357        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1358        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1359            args = self.expressions(expression)
1360            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1361            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1362            values = (
1363                f"({values})"
1364                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1365                else values
1366            )
1367            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1368
1369        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1370        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1371        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1372        # very slow.
1373        expression = expression.copy()
1374        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1375
1376        selects = []
1377
1378        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1379            row = tup.expressions
1380
1381            if i == 0 and column_names:
1382                row = [
1383                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1384                ]
1385
1386            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1387
1388        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1389        if len(selects) > 1:
1390            for select in selects[1:]:
1391                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1392                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1393                )
1394
1395        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1396
1397    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1398        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1399
1400    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1401        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1402        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1403        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1404
1405    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1406        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1407
1408    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1409        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1410
1411        if expression.args.get("all"):
1412            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1413
1414        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1415        grouping_sets = (
1416            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1417        )
1418
1419        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1420        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1421            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1422        else:
1423            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1424            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1425
1426        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1427        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1428            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1429        else:
1430            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1431            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1432
1433        groupings = csv(
1434            grouping_sets,
1435            cube_sql,
1436            rollup_sql,
1437            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1438            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1439        )
1440
1441        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1442            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1443
1444        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1445
1446    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1447        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1448        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1449
1450    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1451        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1452        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1453        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1454        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1455        return start + connect
1456
1457    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1458        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1459
1460    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1461        op_sql = " ".join(
1462            op
1463            for op in (
1464                expression.method,
1465                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1466                expression.side,
1467                expression.kind,
1468                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1469            )
1470            if op
1471        )
1472        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1473        using = expression.args.get("using")
1474
1475        if not on_sql and using:
1476            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1477
1478        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479
1480        if on_sql:
1481            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1482            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1483            if using:
1484                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1485            else:
1486                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1487        elif not op_sql:
1488            return f", {this_sql}"
1489
1490        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1491        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1492
1493    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1494        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1495        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1496        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1497
1498    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500
1501        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1502            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1503
1504        if expression.args.get("view"):
1505            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1506            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1507            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1508            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1509            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1510            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1511
1512        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1513        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1514        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1515
1516    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1518        args = ", ".join(
1519            sql
1520            for sql in (
1521                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1522                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1523            )
1524            if sql
1525        )
1526        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1527
1528    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1530        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1531
1532    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1533        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1534        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1536        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1537        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1538        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1539        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1540        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1541
1542    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1543        expressions = (
1544            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1545        )
1546        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1547        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1548
1549    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1550        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1551
1552    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1553        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1554            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1555            return ""
1556
1557        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1558        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1559        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1560        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1561
1562        if wait is not None:
1563            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1564                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1565            else:
1566                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1567
1568        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1569
1570    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1571        text = expression.this or ""
1572        if expression.is_string:
1573            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1574        return text
1575
1576    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1577        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1578        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1579            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1580        elif self.pretty:
1581            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1582        return text
1583
1584    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1585        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1586        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1587        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1588        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1589        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1590        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1591        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1592        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1593        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1594        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1595        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1596
1597    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1598        return "NULL"
1599
1600    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1601        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1602
1603    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1605        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1606        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1607
1608    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1609        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1610
1611    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1612        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1613
1614    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1615        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1616
1617    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1618        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1619        asc = not desc
1620
1621        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1622        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1623        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1624        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1625        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1626
1627        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1628        nulls_sort_change = ""
1629        if nulls_first and (
1630            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1631        ):
1632            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1633        elif (
1634            nulls_last
1635            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1636            and not nulls_are_last
1637        ):
1638            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1639
1640        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1641            self.unsupported(
1642                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1643            )
1644            nulls_sort_change = ""
1645
1646        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1647
1648    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1649        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1650        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1651        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1652        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1653        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1654        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1655        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1656        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1657        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1658        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1659        definition_sqls = [
1660            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1661            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1662        ]
1663        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1664        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1665        body = "".join(
1666            (
1667                partition,
1668                order,
1669                measures,
1670                rows,
1671                after,
1672                pattern,
1673                define,
1674            )
1675        )
1676        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1677        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1678        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1679
1680    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1681        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1682
1683        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1684        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1685
1686        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1687            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1688        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1689            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1690
1691        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1692
1693        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1694            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1695            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1696            else []
1697        )
1698
1699        return csv(
1700            *sqls,
1701            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1702            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1703            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1704            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1705            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1706            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1708            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1709            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1710            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1711            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1712            sep="",
1713        )
1714
1715    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1716        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1717    ) -> t.List[str]:
1718        return [
1719            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1720            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1721        ]
1722
1723    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1724        return [
1725            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1726            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1727            if expression.args.get("windows")
1728            else "",
1729            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1730            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1731            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1732        ]
1733
1734    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1735        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1736        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1737        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1738
1739    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1740        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1741        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1742        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1743        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1744        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1745        top = (
1746            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1747            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1748            else ""
1749        )
1750
1751        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1752
1753        if kind:
1754            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1755                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1756            else:
1757                if kind == "STRUCT":
1758                    expressions = self.expressions(
1759                        sqls=[
1760                            self.sql(
1761                                exp.Struct(
1762                                    expressions=[
1763                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1764                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1765                                        )
1766                                        for e in expression.expressions
1767                                    ]
1768                                )
1769                            )
1770                        ]
1771                    )
1772                kind = ""
1773
1774        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1775        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1776            expression,
1777            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1778            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1779            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1780        )
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1782
1783    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1786        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1787        return f"{this}{sql}"
1788
1789    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1790        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1791
1792    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1793        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1794        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1795        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1796        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1797        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1798
1799    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1802        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1803
1804    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1806        kind = expression.text("kind")
1807        if kind:
1808            kind = f"{kind}."
1809        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1810
1811    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1812        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1813
1814    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1815        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1816        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1817
1818        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1819        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1820
1821        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1822        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1823
1824    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1825        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1826        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1827
1828    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1829        return self.prepend_ctes(
1830            expression,
1831            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1832        )
1833
1834    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1835        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1836        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1837        return f"UNION{kind}"
1838
1839    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1840        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1841        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1842        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1843            columns = alias.columns
1844            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1845        else:
1846            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1847        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1848        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1849        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1850        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1851        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1852
1853    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1854        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1855        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1856
1857    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1859        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1860        order = expression.args.get("order")
1861        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1862        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1863        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1864        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1865
1866        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1867
1868        first = expression.args.get("first")
1869        if first is None:
1870            first = ""
1871        else:
1872            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1873
1874        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1875            return f"{this} {alias}"
1876
1877        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1878        return f"{this} ({args})"
1879
1880    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1881        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1882        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1883
1884    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1886        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1887        end = (
1888            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1889            or "CURRENT ROW"
1890        )
1891        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1892
1893    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1895        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1896        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1897
1898    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1901        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1902        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1903
1904    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1905        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1906        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1907
1908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1909
1910    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1911        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1912
1913    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1914        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1915
1916    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1918        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1919            this = self.wrap(this)
1920        return f"ANY {this}"
1921
1922    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1923        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1924
1925    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1927        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1928
1929        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1930            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1931            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1932
1933        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1934
1935        if default:
1936            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1937
1938        statements.append("END")
1939
1940        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1941            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1942
1943        return " ".join(statements)
1944
1945    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1948        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1949
1950    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1951        order = expression.args.get("order")
1952        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1953        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1954
1955    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1956        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1957        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1958        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1959
1960    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1961        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1962
1963        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1964            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1965        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1966            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1967        else:
1968            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1969
1970    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1971        expressions = expression.expressions
1972        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1973            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1974        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1975
1976    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1977        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1978        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1979
1980    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1981        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1983        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1984        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1985        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1986        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1987        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1988        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1989
1990    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1992        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1993        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1994        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1995
1996    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1997        expression = expression.copy()
1998        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1999
2000    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2001        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2002        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2003        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2004
2005    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2006        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2007
2008    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2009        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2010        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2011        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2012        if unique_keys is not None:
2013            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2014        else:
2015            unique_keys = ""
2016        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2017        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2018        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2019        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2020        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2021        return self.func(
2022            "JSON_OBJECT",
2023            *expression.expressions,
2024            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2025        )
2026
2027    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2030        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2031        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2032        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2033        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2034
2035    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2038        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2039        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2040        with_ = (
2041            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2042            if expressions
2043            else ""
2044        )
2045        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2046
2047    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2048        query = expression.args.get("query")
2049        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2050        field = expression.args.get("field")
2051        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2052
2053        if query:
2054            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2055        elif unnest:
2056            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2057        elif field:
2058            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2059        else:
2060            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2061
2062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2063
2064    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2065        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2066
2067    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2068        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2069        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2070            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2071        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2072
2073        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2074            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2075            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2076
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        if this:
2079            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2080            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2081
2082        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2083
2084    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2085        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2086
2087    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2089        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2090        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2091        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2092        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2093        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2094
2095    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2096        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2097
2098    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2099        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2100            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2101        else:
2102            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2103            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2104
2105        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2106
2107    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2108        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2109        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2111        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2112
2113    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2114        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115
2116    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2117        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2118        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2120
2121    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2123
2124    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2127        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2128
2129    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2131
2132    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2133        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2134
2135    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2136        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2137
2138    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2139        if not self.pretty:
2140            return self.binary(expression, op)
2141
2142        sqls = tuple(
2143            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2144            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2145        )
2146
2147        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2148        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2149
2150    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2152
2153    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2155
2156    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2157        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2158
2159    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2160        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2161
2162    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2164
2165    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2167
2168    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2169        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2170        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2171        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2172
2173    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2174        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2176
2177    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2178        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2179
2180    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2181        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2182
2183    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2185        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2186        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2187        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2188        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2189
2190    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2192        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2193        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2194        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2195        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2196        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2197        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2198        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2199        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2200
2201    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2202        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2203        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2204        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2205        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2206
2207        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2208            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2209
2210        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2211
2212    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2213        return "BEGIN"
2214
2215    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2216        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2217        if chain is not None:
2218            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2219
2220        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2221
2222    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2223        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2224        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2225        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2226
2227    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2229
2230        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2231        if dtype:
2232            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2233            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2234            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2235            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2236            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2237
2238        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2239        if default:
2240            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2241
2242        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2243            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2244
2245        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2246
2247    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2248        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2249            # Remove db from tables
2250            expression = expression.transform(
2251                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2252            )
2253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2254        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2255
2256    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2257        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2258
2259        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2260            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2261        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2262            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2263        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2264            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2265        else:
2266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2267
2268        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2269        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2270
2271    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2273        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2274        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2275
2276    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2279        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2280
2281        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2282        if enforced is not None:
2283            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2284
2285        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2286
2287    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2288        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2289        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2290
2291        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2292        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2293        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2294
2295    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2296        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2297
2298    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2299        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2300
2301    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2302        return self.sql(
2303            exp.Cast(
2304                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2305                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2306            )
2307        )
2308
2309    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2311
2312    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2313        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2314            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2315        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2316
2317    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2319
2320    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2322
2323    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2325
2326    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2327        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2328
2329    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2331
2332    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2334
2335    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2337
2338    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2339        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2340
2341    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2343
2344    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2346
2347    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2348        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2349
2350    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2351        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2352            return self.sql(
2353                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2354            )
2355        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2356
2357    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2359
2360    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2362
2363    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2365
2366    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2368
2369    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2371
2372    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2373        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2374
2375    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2376        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2377
2378    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2380
2381    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2382        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2383
2384    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2385        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2386
2387    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2388        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2389
2390    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2391        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2392
2393    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2394        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2395
2396    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2397        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2398
2399    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2401        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2404        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2405
2406    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2407        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2409
2410    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2411        args = []
2412
2413        for key in expression.arg_types:
2414            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2415
2416            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2417                for value in arg_value:
2418                    args.append(value)
2419            elif arg_value is not None:
2420                args.append(arg_value)
2421
2422        if self.normalize_functions:
2423            name = expression.sql_name()
2424        else:
2425            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2426
2427        return self.func(name, *args)
2428
2429    def func(
2430        self,
2431        name: str,
2432        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2433        prefix: str = "(",
2434        suffix: str = ")",
2435    ) -> str:
2436        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2437
2438    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2439        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2440        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2441            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2442        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2443
2444    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2445        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2446
2447    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2448        return format_time(
2449            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2450        )
2451
2452    def expressions(
2453        self,
2454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2455        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2456        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2457        flat: bool = False,
2458        indent: bool = True,
2459        skip_first: bool = False,
2460        sep: str = ", ",
2461        prefix: str = "",
2462    ) -> str:
2463        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2464
2465        if not expressions:
2466            return ""
2467
2468        if flat:
2469            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2470
2471        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2472
2473        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2474        pad = " " * self.pad
2475        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2476
2477        result_sqls = []
2478        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2479            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2480            if not sql:
2481                continue
2482
2483            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2484
2485            if self.pretty:
2486                if self.leading_comma:
2487                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2488                else:
2489                    result_sqls.append(
2490                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2491                    )
2492            else:
2493                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2494
2495        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2496        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2497
2498    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2499        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2500        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2501        if flat:
2502            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2503        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2504
2505    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2506        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2507        if not property_name:
2508            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2509        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2510
2511    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        op = self.seg(op)
2514        return self.query_modifiers(
2515            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2516        )
2517
2518    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2519        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2520
2521    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2522        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2523
2524    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2526        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2527        expressions = (
2528            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2529        )
2530        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2531
2532    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2535        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2536
2537    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2539
2540    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2541        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2542        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2543        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2544        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2545
2546        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2547        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2548            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2549            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2550                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2551        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2552            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2553                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2554            else:
2555                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2556        else:
2557            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2558        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2559
2560    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2561        table = expression.this
2562        table_alias = ""
2563
2564        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2565        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2566            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2567            table = table.copy()
2568            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2569
2570        this = self.sql(table)
2571        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2572        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2574
2575        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2576
2577    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2578        if expression.args.get("format"):
2579            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2580
2581        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2582
2583    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2586        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2587        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2588        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2589
2590    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2592        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2593        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2594        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2595
2596    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2598
2599    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2600        return ""
2601
2602    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2604        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2605        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2606        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2607        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2608
2609    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2612
2613        if having:
2614            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2615
2616        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2617
2618    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2619        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2620        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2621        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2622        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2623        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2624        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2625        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2626        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2627        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2628        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2629        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2630        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2631        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2632
2633    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2634        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2635        if key_block_size:
2636            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2637
2638        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2639        if using:
2640            return f"USING {using}"
2641
2642        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2643        if parser:
2644            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2645
2646        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2647        if comment:
2648            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2649
2650        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2651        if visible is not None:
2652            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2653
2654        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2655        if engine_attr:
2656            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2657
2658        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2659        if secondary_engine_attr:
2660            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2661
2662        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2663        return ""
2664
2665    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2667        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2669        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2670        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2671        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2672        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2673        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2674        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2675        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2676        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2677
2678    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2679        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2680            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2681
2682        case = exp.Case().when(
2683            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2684            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2685            copy=False,
2686        )
2687        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2688        if else_cond:
2689            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2690
2691        return self.sql(case)
2692
2693
2694def cached_generator(
2695    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2696) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2697    """Returns a cached generator."""
2698    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2699    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2700    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  77        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 144    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 145
 146    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 147    JOIN_HINTS = True
 148
 149    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 150    TABLE_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 153    QUERY_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 156    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 157
 158    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 159    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 162    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 165    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 168    RETURNING_END = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 171    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 174    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 177    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 180    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 181
 182    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 183    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 184
 185    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 186    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 187    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 188    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 189
 190    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 198    }
 199
 200    STAR_MAPPING = {
 201        "except": "EXCEPT",
 202        "replace": "REPLACE",
 203    }
 204
 205    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 206        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 207        "seconds": "second",
 208        "minutes": "minute",
 209        "hours": "hour",
 210        "days": "day",
 211        "weeks": "week",
 212        "months": "month",
 213        "quarters": "quarter",
 214        "years": "year",
 215    }
 216
 217    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 218
 219    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 220
 221    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 222
 223    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 224        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 234        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 244        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 246        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 252        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 253        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 255        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 256        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 258        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 260        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 262        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 279        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 280        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281    }
 282
 283    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 284    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 285
 286    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 287    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 288        exp.Create,
 289        exp.Delete,
 290        exp.Drop,
 291        exp.From,
 292        exp.Insert,
 293        exp.Join,
 294        exp.Select,
 295        exp.Update,
 296        exp.Where,
 297        exp.With,
 298    )
 299
 300    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 301    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 302        exp.Column,
 303        exp.Literal,
 304        exp.Neg,
 305        exp.Paren,
 306    )
 307
 308    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 309
 310    # Autofilled
 311    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 312    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 313    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 314    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 315    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 316    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 317    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 318    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 319    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 320    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 321
 322    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 323
 324    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 325    QUOTE_START = "'"
 326    QUOTE_END = "'"
 327    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 328    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 329    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 330
 331    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 332    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 338
 339    __slots__ = (
 340        "pretty",
 341        "identify",
 342        "normalize",
 343        "pad",
 344        "_indent",
 345        "normalize_functions",
 346        "unsupported_level",
 347        "max_unsupported",
 348        "leading_comma",
 349        "max_text_width",
 350        "comments",
 351        "unsupported_messages",
 352        "_escaped_quote_end",
 353        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 354        "_cache",
 355    )
 356
 357    def __init__(
 358        self,
 359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 360        identify: str | bool = False,
 361        normalize: bool = False,
 362        pad: int = 2,
 363        indent: int = 2,
 364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 367        leading_comma: bool = False,
 368        max_text_width: int = 80,
 369        comments: bool = True,
 370    ):
 371        import sqlglot
 372
 373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 374        self.identify = identify
 375        self.normalize = normalize
 376        self.pad = pad
 377        self._indent = indent
 378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 382        self.comments = comments
 383
 384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 385        self.normalize_functions = (
 386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 387        )
 388
 389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 393        )
 394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 395
 396    def generate(
 397        self,
 398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 400    ) -> str:
 401        """
 402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 403
 404        Args:
 405            expression: The syntax tree.
 406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 408
 409        Returns:
 410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 411        """
 412        if cache is not None:
 413            self._cache = cache
 414
 415        self.unsupported_messages = []
 416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 417        self._cache = None
 418
 419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 424                logger.warning(msg)
 425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 427
 428        if self.pretty:
 429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 430        return sql
 431
 432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 436
 437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 439
 440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 442
 443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 446        return comment
 447
 448    def maybe_comment(
 449        self,
 450        sql: str,
 451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 453    ) -> str:
 454        comments = (
 455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 456            if self.comments
 457            else None
 458        )
 459
 460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 461            return sql
 462
 463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 464        comments_sql = sep.join(
 465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 466        )
 467
 468        if not comments_sql:
 469            return sql
 470
 471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 472            return (
 473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 474                if sql[0].isspace()
 475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 476            )
 477
 478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 479
 480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 481        this_sql = self.indent(
 482            self.sql(expression)
 483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 485            level=1,
 486            pad=0,
 487        )
 488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 489
 490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 491        original = self.identify
 492        self.identify = False
 493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 494        self.identify = original
 495        return result
 496
 497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 499            return name.upper()
 500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 501            return name.lower()
 502        return name
 503
 504    def indent(
 505        self,
 506        sql: str,
 507        level: int = 0,
 508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 509        skip_first: bool = False,
 510        skip_last: bool = False,
 511    ) -> str:
 512        if not self.pretty:
 513            return sql
 514
 515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 516        lines = sql.split("\n")
 517
 518        return "\n".join(
 519            line
 520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 523        )
 524
 525    def sql(
 526        self,
 527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 529        comment: bool = True,
 530    ) -> str:
 531        if not expression:
 532            return ""
 533
 534        if isinstance(expression, str):
 535            return expression
 536
 537        if key:
 538            value = expression.args.get(key)
 539            if value:
 540                return self.sql(value)
 541            return ""
 542
 543        if self._cache is not None:
 544            expression_id = hash(expression)
 545
 546            if expression_id in self._cache:
 547                return self._cache[expression_id]
 548
 549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 550
 551        if callable(transform):
 552            sql = transform(self, expression)
 553        elif transform:
 554            sql = transform
 555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 557
 558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 564            else:
 565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 566        else:
 567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 568
 569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 570
 571        if self._cache is not None:
 572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 573        return sql
 574
 575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 579
 580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 583        options = expression.args.get("options")
 584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 589
 590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 595
 596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 598
 599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 600            join_mark = ""
 601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 602
 603        column = ".".join(
 604            self.sql(part)
 605            for part in (
 606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 607                expression.args.get("db"),
 608                expression.args.get("table"),
 609                expression.args.get("this"),
 610            )
 611            if part
 612        )
 613
 614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 615
 616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 620        return f"{position}{this}"
 621
 622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 631
 632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 633
 634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 638
 639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 645        else:
 646            persisted = ""
 647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 648
 649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 651
 652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 655        else:
 656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 657
 658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 659
 660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 662    ) -> str:
 663        this = ""
 664        if expression.this is not None:
 665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 667
 668        start = expression.args.get("start")
 669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 677        cycle_sql = ""
 678
 679        if cycle is not None:
 680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 682
 683        sequence_opts = ""
 684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 687
 688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 690
 691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 692
 693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 695
 696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 698        if desc is not None:
 699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 701
 702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 706
 707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 709
 710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 714
 715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 716
 717        properties_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 720        ):
 721            properties_sql = self.sql(
 722                exp.Properties(
 723                    expressions=[
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 726                    ]
 727                )
 728            )
 729
 730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 732        if expression_sql:
 733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 734
 735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 738                        exp.Properties(
 739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 740                        ),
 741                        wrapped=False,
 742                    )
 743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 744                else:
 745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 746
 747        postindex_props_sql = ""
 748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 751                wrapped=False,
 752                prefix=" ",
 753            )
 754
 755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 758
 759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 761
 762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 766                sep=" ",
 767                prefix=" ",
 768                wrapped=False,
 769            )
 770
 771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 772
 773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 776                exp.Properties(
 777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 778                ),
 779                sep=" ",
 780                prefix=" ",
 781                wrapped=False,
 782            )
 783
 784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 785        no_schema_binding = (
 786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 787        )
 788
 789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 791
 792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 794
 795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 798
 799        if when:
 800            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 801            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 802            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 803
 804        return f"CLONE {this}"
 805
 806    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 807        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 808
 809    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 810        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 811        if with_:
 812            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 813        return sql
 814
 815    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 816        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 817        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 818
 819        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 820
 821    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 823        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 824
 825    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 826        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 828        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 829        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 830
 831    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        if self.BIT_START:
 834            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 835        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 836
 837    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        if self.HEX_START:
 840            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 841        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 842
 843    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        if self.BYTE_START:
 846            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 847        return this
 848
 849    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 850        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 851        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 852
 853    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 856        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 857        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 858
 859    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 860        type_value = expression.this
 861
 862        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 863            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 864        else:
 865            type_sql = (
 866                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 867                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 868                else type_value
 869            )
 870
 871        nested = ""
 872        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 873        values = ""
 874
 875        if interior:
 876            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 877                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 878                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 879                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 880                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 881                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 882            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 883                nested = f" {interior}"
 884            else:
 885                nested = f"({interior})"
 886
 887        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 888        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 890            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 891        ):
 892            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 893
 894        return type_sql
 895
 896    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 897        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 898        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 899        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 900        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 901
 902    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 905        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 906        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 907        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 908        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 909        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 910        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 911        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 912        if self.RETURNING_END:
 913            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 914        else:
 915            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 917
 918    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 920        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 922        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 923        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 924        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 925        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 926        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 927        return (
 928            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 929        )
 930
 931    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 932        return self.prepend_ctes(
 933            expression,
 934            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 935        )
 936
 937    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 938        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 939
 940    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 941        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 942        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 943        count = expression.args.get("count")
 944        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 945        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 946            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 947        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 948        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 949
 950    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 953        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 954
 955    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 956        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 957            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 958            return ""
 959
 960        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 961
 962    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 963        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 964        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 965        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 966        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 968        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 969        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 971        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 972        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 973        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 974        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 975        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 976        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 977        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 978
 979    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 980        text = expression.name
 981        lower = text.lower()
 982        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 983        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 984        if (
 985            expression.quoted
 986            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 987            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 988            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 989        ):
 990            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 991        return text
 992
 993    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 994        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 995        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 996        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 997        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 998        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 999
1000    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1001        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1002        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1003
1004    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1005        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1006
1007    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1008        root_properties = []
1009        with_properties = []
1010
1011        for p in expression.expressions:
1012            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1013            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1014                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1017
1018        return self.root_properties(
1019            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1020        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1021
1022    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1023        if properties.expressions:
1024            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        return ""
1026
1027    def properties(
1028        self,
1029        properties: exp.Properties,
1030        prefix: str = "",
1031        sep: str = ", ",
1032        suffix: str = "",
1033        wrapped: bool = True,
1034    ) -> str:
1035        if properties.expressions:
1036            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1037            if expressions:
1038                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1039                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1040        return ""
1041
1042    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1043        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1044
1045    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1046        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1047        for p in properties.expressions:
1048            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1049            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1050                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1051            else:
1052                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1053
1054        return properties_locs
1055
1056    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1057        property_cls = expression.__class__
1058        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1059            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1060
1061        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1062        if not property_name:
1063            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1064
1065        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1066
1067    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1068        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1069        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1070        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1071
1072    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1075        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1076
1077    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        local = expression.args.get("local")
1080        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1081        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1082        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1083        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1084        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1085
1086    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1087        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1089        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1090
1091    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1092        if expression.args.get("default"):
1093            property = "DEFAULT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1095            property = "ON"
1096        else:
1097            property = "OFF"
1098        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1099
1100    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1101        if expression.args.get("no"):
1102            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1103        if expression.args.get("default"):
1104            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105
1106        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1107        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1108
1109    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1110        default = expression.args.get("default")
1111        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1112        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1113        if default or minimum or maximum:
1114            if default:
1115                prop = "DEFAULT"
1116            elif minimum:
1117                prop = "MINIMUM"
1118            else:
1119                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1120            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1121        units = expression.args.get("units")
1122        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1123        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1124
1125    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1126        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1127        always = expression.args.get("always")
1128        default = expression.args.get("default")
1129        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1130        never = expression.args.get("never")
1131
1132        if autotemp is not None:
1133            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1134        elif always:
1135            prop = "ALWAYS"
1136        elif default:
1137            prop = "DEFAULT"
1138        elif manual:
1139            prop = "MANUAL"
1140        elif never:
1141            prop = "NEVER"
1142        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1143
1144    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1145        no = expression.args.get("no")
1146        no = " NO" if no else ""
1147        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1148        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1149
1150        for_ = ""
1151        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1152            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1153        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1154            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1156            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1157        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1158
1159    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1160        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1161        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1162        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1163        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1164        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1165        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1166
1167    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1168        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1169        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1170        statistics_sql = ""
1171        if statistics is not None:
1172            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1173        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1174
1175    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1176        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1177
1178        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1179            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1180        else:
1181            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182
1183        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1184        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1185        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1186
1187        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1188
1189        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1190        partition_sql = (
1191            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1192        )
1193        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1194        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1195        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1196        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1197        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1198
1199        if self.RETURNING_END:
1200            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1201        else:
1202            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1203
1204        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1205        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1206
1207    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1208        return self.prepend_ctes(
1209            expression,
1210            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1211        )
1212
1213    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1215
1216    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1217        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1218
1219    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1220        return expression.name.upper()
1221
1222    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1223        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1224        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1225        if constraint:
1226            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1227        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1228        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1229        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1230        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1231        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1232        if expressions:
1233            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1234        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1235
1236    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1237        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1238
1239    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1240        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1241        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1242        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1243        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1244        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1245        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1246        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1247        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1248        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1249        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1250        null = expression.args.get("null")
1251        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1252        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1253
1254    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1255        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1256
1257    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1258        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1259        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1260        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1261        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1262
1263    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1264        table = ".".join(
1265            part
1266            for part in [
1267                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1269                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1270            ]
1271            if part
1272        )
1273
1274        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1275        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1276        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1277        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1278        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1279        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1280        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1281        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1282        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1283        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1284
1285        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1286
1287    def tablesample_sql(
1288        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1289    ) -> str:
1290        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1291            table = expression.this.copy()
1292            table.set("alias", None)
1293            this = self.sql(table)
1294            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1295        else:
1296            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297            alias = ""
1298        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1299        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1300        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1301        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1302        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1303        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1304        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1305        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1306        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1307        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1308        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1309        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1310        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1311            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1312        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1313        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1314        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1315        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1316
1317    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1318        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1319
1320        if expression.this:
1321            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1323            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1324            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1325            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1326            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1327
1328        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1329        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1330        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1331        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1332        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1333        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1334        if include_nulls is not None:
1335            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1336        else:
1337            nulls = ""
1338        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1339
1340    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1341        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1342
1343    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1346        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1347        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1348        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1349        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1350        if self.RETURNING_END:
1351            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1352        else:
1353            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1354        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1356
1357    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1358        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1359        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1360            args = self.expressions(expression)
1361            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1362            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1363            values = (
1364                f"({values})"
1365                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1366                else values
1367            )
1368            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1369
1370        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1371        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1372        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1373        # very slow.
1374        expression = expression.copy()
1375        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1376
1377        selects = []
1378
1379        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1380            row = tup.expressions
1381
1382            if i == 0 and column_names:
1383                row = [
1384                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1385                ]
1386
1387            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1388
1389        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1390        if len(selects) > 1:
1391            for select in selects[1:]:
1392                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1393                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1394                )
1395
1396        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1397
1398    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1399        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1400
1401    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1402        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1403        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1404        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1405
1406    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1407        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1408
1409    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1410        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1411
1412        if expression.args.get("all"):
1413            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1414
1415        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1416        grouping_sets = (
1417            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1418        )
1419
1420        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1421        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1422            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1423        else:
1424            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1425            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1426
1427        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1428        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1429            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1430        else:
1431            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1432            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1433
1434        groupings = csv(
1435            grouping_sets,
1436            cube_sql,
1437            rollup_sql,
1438            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1439            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1440        )
1441
1442        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1443            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1444
1445        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1446
1447    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1448        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1449        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1450
1451    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1452        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1453        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1454        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1455        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1456        return start + connect
1457
1458    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1459        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1460
1461    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1462        op_sql = " ".join(
1463            op
1464            for op in (
1465                expression.method,
1466                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1467                expression.side,
1468                expression.kind,
1469                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1470            )
1471            if op
1472        )
1473        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1474        using = expression.args.get("using")
1475
1476        if not on_sql and using:
1477            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1478
1479        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1480
1481        if on_sql:
1482            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1483            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1484            if using:
1485                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1486            else:
1487                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1488        elif not op_sql:
1489            return f", {this_sql}"
1490
1491        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1492        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1493
1494    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1495        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1496        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1497        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1498
1499    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501
1502        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1503            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1504
1505        if expression.args.get("view"):
1506            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1507            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1508            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1509            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1510            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1511            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1512
1513        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1514        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1515        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1516
1517    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        args = ", ".join(
1520            sql
1521            for sql in (
1522                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1523                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1524            )
1525            if sql
1526        )
1527        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1528
1529    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1531        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1532
1533    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1535        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1538        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1539        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1540        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1541        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1542
1543    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1544        expressions = (
1545            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1546        )
1547        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1548        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1549
1550    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1551        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1552
1553    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1554        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1555            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1556            return ""
1557
1558        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1560        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1561        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1562
1563        if wait is not None:
1564            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1565                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1566            else:
1567                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1568
1569        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1570
1571    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1572        text = expression.this or ""
1573        if expression.is_string:
1574            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1575        return text
1576
1577    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1578        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1579        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1580            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1581        elif self.pretty:
1582            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1583        return text
1584
1585    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1586        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1587        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1588        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1589        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1590        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1591        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1592        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1593        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1594        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1595        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1596        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1597
1598    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1599        return "NULL"
1600
1601    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1602        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1603
1604    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1606        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1607        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1608
1609    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1610        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1611
1612    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1613        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1614
1615    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1616        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1617
1618    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1619        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1620        asc = not desc
1621
1622        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1623        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1624        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1625        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1626        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1627
1628        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1629        nulls_sort_change = ""
1630        if nulls_first and (
1631            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1632        ):
1633            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1634        elif (
1635            nulls_last
1636            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1637            and not nulls_are_last
1638        ):
1639            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1640
1641        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1642            self.unsupported(
1643                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1644            )
1645            nulls_sort_change = ""
1646
1647        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1648
1649    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1650        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1651        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1652        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1653        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1654        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1655        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1656        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1657        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1658        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1660        definition_sqls = [
1661            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1662            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1663        ]
1664        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1665        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1666        body = "".join(
1667            (
1668                partition,
1669                order,
1670                measures,
1671                rows,
1672                after,
1673                pattern,
1674                define,
1675            )
1676        )
1677        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1678        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1679        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1680
1681    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1682        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1683
1684        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1685        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1686
1687        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1688            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1689        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1690            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1691
1692        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1693
1694        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1695            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1696            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1697            else []
1698        )
1699
1700        return csv(
1701            *sqls,
1702            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1703            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1704            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1705            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1706            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1708            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1709            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1710            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1711            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1712            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1713            sep="",
1714        )
1715
1716    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1717        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1718    ) -> t.List[str]:
1719        return [
1720            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1721            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1722        ]
1723
1724    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1725        return [
1726            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1727            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1728            if expression.args.get("windows")
1729            else "",
1730            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1731            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1732            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1733        ]
1734
1735    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1736        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1737        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1738        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1739
1740    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1743        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1744        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1745        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1746        top = (
1747            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1748            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1749            else ""
1750        )
1751
1752        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1753
1754        if kind:
1755            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1756                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1757            else:
1758                if kind == "STRUCT":
1759                    expressions = self.expressions(
1760                        sqls=[
1761                            self.sql(
1762                                exp.Struct(
1763                                    expressions=[
1764                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1765                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1766                                        )
1767                                        for e in expression.expressions
1768                                    ]
1769                                )
1770                            )
1771                        ]
1772                    )
1773                kind = ""
1774
1775        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1776        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1777            expression,
1778            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1779            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1780            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1781        )
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1783
1784    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1787        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1788        return f"{this}{sql}"
1789
1790    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1791        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1792
1793    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1794        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1795        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1796        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1797        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1798        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1799
1800    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1803        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1804
1805    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        kind = expression.text("kind")
1808        if kind:
1809            kind = f"{kind}."
1810        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1811
1812    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1813        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1814
1815    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1818
1819        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1820        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1821
1822        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1823        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1824
1825    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1826        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1827        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1828
1829    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1830        return self.prepend_ctes(
1831            expression,
1832            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1833        )
1834
1835    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1836        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1837        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1838        return f"UNION{kind}"
1839
1840    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1841        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1842        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1843        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1844            columns = alias.columns
1845            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1846        else:
1847            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1848        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1849        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1850        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1851        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1852        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1853
1854    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1855        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1856        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1857
1858    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1861        order = expression.args.get("order")
1862        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1863        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1864        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1865        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1866
1867        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1868
1869        first = expression.args.get("first")
1870        if first is None:
1871            first = ""
1872        else:
1873            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1874
1875        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1876            return f"{this} {alias}"
1877
1878        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1879        return f"{this} ({args})"
1880
1881    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1882        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1883        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1884
1885    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1887        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1888        end = (
1889            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1890            or "CURRENT ROW"
1891        )
1892        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1893
1894    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1896        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1897        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1898
1899    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1901        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1902        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1903        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1904
1905    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1906        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1907        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1908
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1910
1911    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1912        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1913
1914    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1915        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1916
1917    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1919        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1920            this = self.wrap(this)
1921        return f"ANY {this}"
1922
1923    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1924        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1925
1926    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1928        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1929
1930        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1931            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1932            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1933
1934        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1935
1936        if default:
1937            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1938
1939        statements.append("END")
1940
1941        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1942            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1943
1944        return " ".join(statements)
1945
1946    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1950
1951    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1952        order = expression.args.get("order")
1953        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1954        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1955
1956    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1958        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1959        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1960
1961    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1962        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1963
1964        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1965            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1966        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1967            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1968        else:
1969            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1970
1971    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1972        expressions = expression.expressions
1973        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1974            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1975        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1976
1977    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1978        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1979        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1980
1981    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1982        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1983        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1984        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1985        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1986        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1987        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1988        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1989        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1990
1991    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1992        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1995        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1996
1997    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1998        expression = expression.copy()
1999        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2000
2001    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2002        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2003        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2004        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2005
2006    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2007        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2008
2009    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2010        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2011        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2012        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2013        if unique_keys is not None:
2014            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2015        else:
2016            unique_keys = ""
2017        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2018        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2019        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2020        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2021        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2022        return self.func(
2023            "JSON_OBJECT",
2024            *expression.expressions,
2025            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2026        )
2027
2028    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2031        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2032        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2033        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2034        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2035
2036    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2039        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2041        with_ = (
2042            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2043            if expressions
2044            else ""
2045        )
2046        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2047
2048    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2049        query = expression.args.get("query")
2050        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2051        field = expression.args.get("field")
2052        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2053
2054        if query:
2055            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2056        elif unnest:
2057            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2058        elif field:
2059            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2060        else:
2061            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2062
2063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2064
2065    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2066        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2067
2068    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2069        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2070        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2071            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2072        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2073
2074        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2075            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2076            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2077
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        if this:
2080            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2081            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2082
2083        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2084
2085    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2086        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2087
2088    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2091        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2092        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2093        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2094        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2095
2096    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2097        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2098
2099    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2100        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2101            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2102        else:
2103            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2104            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2105
2106        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2107
2108    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2109        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2110        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2112        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2113
2114    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2115        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2116
2117    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2118        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2119        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2121
2122    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2124
2125    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2128        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2129
2130    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2132
2133    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2134        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2135
2136    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2137        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2138
2139    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2140        if not self.pretty:
2141            return self.binary(expression, op)
2142
2143        sqls = tuple(
2144            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2145            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2146        )
2147
2148        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2149        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2150
2151    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2153
2154    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2156
2157    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2158        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2159
2160    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2162
2163    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2165
2166    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2168
2169    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2170        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2171        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2172        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2173
2174    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2175        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2177
2178    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2180
2181    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2183
2184    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2187        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2188        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2189        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2190
2191    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2193        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2194        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2195        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2196        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2197        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2198        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2199        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2200        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2201
2202    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2203        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2204        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2205        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2206        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2207
2208        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2209            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2210
2211        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2212
2213    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2214        return "BEGIN"
2215
2216    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2217        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2218        if chain is not None:
2219            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2220
2221        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2222
2223    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2224        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2225        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2226        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2227
2228    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230
2231        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2232        if dtype:
2233            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2234            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2235            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2236            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2237            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2238
2239        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2240        if default:
2241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2242
2243        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2244            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2245
2246        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2247
2248    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2249        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2250            # Remove db from tables
2251            expression = expression.transform(
2252                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2253            )
2254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2255        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2256
2257    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2258        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2259
2260        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2261            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2266        else:
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2268
2269        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2270        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2271
2272    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2273        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2274        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2275        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2276
2277    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2279        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2280        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2281
2282        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2283        if enforced is not None:
2284            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2285
2286        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2287
2288    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2289        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2291
2292        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2293        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2294        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2295
2296    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2297        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2298
2299    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2300        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2301
2302    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2303        return self.sql(
2304            exp.Cast(
2305                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2306                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2307            )
2308        )
2309
2310    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2311        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2312
2313    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2314        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2315            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2316        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2317
2318    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2320
2321    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2323
2324    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2326
2327    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2328        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2329
2330    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2332
2333    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2335
2336    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2338
2339    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2341
2342    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2344
2345    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2347
2348    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2350
2351    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2352        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2353            return self.sql(
2354                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2355            )
2356        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2357
2358    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2360
2361    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2363
2364    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2366
2367    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2369
2370    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2371        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2372
2373    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2374        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2375
2376    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2377        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2378
2379    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2381
2382    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2384
2385    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2387
2388    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2389        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2390
2391    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2392        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2393
2394    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2396
2397    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2398        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2399
2400    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2401        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2402        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2405        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2406
2407    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2408        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2410
2411    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2412        args = []
2413
2414        for key in expression.arg_types:
2415            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2416
2417            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2418                for value in arg_value:
2419                    args.append(value)
2420            elif arg_value is not None:
2421                args.append(arg_value)
2422
2423        if self.normalize_functions:
2424            name = expression.sql_name()
2425        else:
2426            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2427
2428        return self.func(name, *args)
2429
2430    def func(
2431        self,
2432        name: str,
2433        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2434        prefix: str = "(",
2435        suffix: str = ")",
2436    ) -> str:
2437        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2438
2439    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2440        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2441        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2442            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2443        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2444
2445    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2446        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2447
2448    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2449        return format_time(
2450            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2451        )
2452
2453    def expressions(
2454        self,
2455        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2456        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2457        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2458        flat: bool = False,
2459        indent: bool = True,
2460        skip_first: bool = False,
2461        sep: str = ", ",
2462        prefix: str = "",
2463    ) -> str:
2464        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2465
2466        if not expressions:
2467            return ""
2468
2469        if flat:
2470            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2471
2472        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2473
2474        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2475        pad = " " * self.pad
2476        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2477
2478        result_sqls = []
2479        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2480            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2481            if not sql:
2482                continue
2483
2484            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2485
2486            if self.pretty:
2487                if self.leading_comma:
2488                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2489                else:
2490                    result_sqls.append(
2491                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2492                    )
2493            else:
2494                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2495
2496        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2497        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2498
2499    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2500        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2501        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2502        if flat:
2503            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2504        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2505
2506    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2507        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2508        if not property_name:
2509            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2510        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2511
2512    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        op = self.seg(op)
2515        return self.query_modifiers(
2516            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2517        )
2518
2519    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2520        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2521
2522    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2523        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2524
2525    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2528        expressions = (
2529            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2530        )
2531        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2532
2533    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2536        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2537
2538    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2539        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2540
2541    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2542        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2543        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2544        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2545        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2546
2547        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2548        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2549            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2550            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2551                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2552        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2553            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2554                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2555            else:
2556                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2557        else:
2558            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2559        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2560
2561    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2562        table = expression.this
2563        table_alias = ""
2564
2565        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2566        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2567            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2568            table = table.copy()
2569            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2570
2571        this = self.sql(table)
2572        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2573        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2575
2576        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2577
2578    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2579        if expression.args.get("format"):
2580            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2581
2582        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2583
2584    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2587        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2588        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2589        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2590
2591    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2594        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2595        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2596
2597    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2599
2600    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2601        return ""
2602
2603    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2604        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2605        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2606        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2607        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2608        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2609
2610    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2613
2614        if having:
2615            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2616
2617        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2618
2619    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2620        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2621        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2622        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2623        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2624        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2625        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2626        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2627        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2628        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2629        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2630        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2631        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2632        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2633
2634    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2635        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2636        if key_block_size:
2637            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2638
2639        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2640        if using:
2641            return f"USING {using}"
2642
2643        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2644        if parser:
2645            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2646
2647        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2648        if comment:
2649            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2650
2651        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2652        if visible is not None:
2653            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2654
2655        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2656        if engine_attr:
2657            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2658
2659        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2660        if secondary_engine_attr:
2661            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2662
2663        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2664        return ""
2665
2666    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2670        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2671        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2672        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2673        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2674        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2675        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2676        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2677        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2678
2679    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2680        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2681            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2682
2683        case = exp.Case().when(
2684            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2685            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2686            copy=False,
2687        )
2688        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2689        if else_cond:
2690            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2691
2692        return self.sql(case)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
357    def __init__(
358        self,
359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
360        identify: str | bool = False,
361        normalize: bool = False,
362        pad: int = 2,
363        indent: int = 2,
364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
367        leading_comma: bool = False,
368        max_text_width: int = 80,
369        comments: bool = True,
370    ):
371        import sqlglot
372
373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
374        self.identify = identify
375        self.normalize = normalize
376        self.pad = pad
377        self._indent = indent
378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
382        self.comments = comments
383
384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
385        self.normalize_functions = (
386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
387        )
388
389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
393        )
394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
396    def generate(
397        self,
398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
400    ) -> str:
401        """
402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
403
404        Args:
405            expression: The syntax tree.
406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
408
409        Returns:
410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
411        """
412        if cache is not None:
413            self._cache = cache
414
415        self.unsupported_messages = []
416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
417        self._cache = None
418
419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
420            return sql
421
422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
424                logger.warning(msg)
425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
427
428        if self.pretty:
429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
430        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
446        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
448    def maybe_comment(
449        self,
450        sql: str,
451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
453    ) -> str:
454        comments = (
455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
456            if self.comments
457            else None
458        )
459
460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
461            return sql
462
463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
464        comments_sql = sep.join(
465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
466        )
467
468        if not comments_sql:
469            return sql
470
471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
472            return (
473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
474                if sql[0].isspace()
475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
476            )
477
478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
481        this_sql = self.indent(
482            self.sql(expression)
483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
485            level=1,
486            pad=0,
487        )
488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
491        original = self.identify
492        self.identify = False
493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
494        self.identify = original
495        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
499            return name.upper()
500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
501            return name.lower()
502        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
504    def indent(
505        self,
506        sql: str,
507        level: int = 0,
508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
509        skip_first: bool = False,
510        skip_last: bool = False,
511    ) -> str:
512        if not self.pretty:
513            return sql
514
515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
516        lines = sql.split("\n")
517
518        return "\n".join(
519            line
520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
523        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
525    def sql(
526        self,
527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
529        comment: bool = True,
530    ) -> str:
531        if not expression:
532            return ""
533
534        if isinstance(expression, str):
535            return expression
536
537        if key:
538            value = expression.args.get(key)
539            if value:
540                return self.sql(value)
541            return ""
542
543        if self._cache is not None:
544            expression_id = hash(expression)
545
546            if expression_id in self._cache:
547                return self._cache[expression_id]
548
549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
550
551        if callable(transform):
552            sql = transform(self, expression)
553        elif transform:
554            sql = transform
555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
557
558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
564            else:
565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
566        else:
567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
568
569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
570
571        if self._cache is not None:
572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
573        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
583        options = expression.args.get("options")
584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
598
599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
600            join_mark = ""
601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
602
603        column = ".".join(
604            self.sql(part)
605            for part in (
606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
607                expression.args.get("db"),
608                expression.args.get("table"),
609                expression.args.get("this"),
610            )
611            if part
612        )
613
614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
620        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
631
632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
645        else:
646            persisted = ""
647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
655        else:
656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
657
658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
662    ) -> str:
663        this = ""
664        if expression.this is not None:
665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
667
668        start = expression.args.get("start")
669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
677        cycle_sql = ""
678
679        if cycle is not None:
680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
682
683        sequence_opts = ""
684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
687
688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
690
691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
698        if desc is not None:
699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
714
715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
716
717        properties_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
720        ):
721            properties_sql = self.sql(
722                exp.Properties(
723                    expressions=[
724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
726                    ]
727                )
728            )
729
730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
732        if expression_sql:
733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
734
735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
738                        exp.Properties(
739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
740                        ),
741                        wrapped=False,
742                    )
743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
744                else:
745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
746
747        postindex_props_sql = ""
748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
751                wrapped=False,
752                prefix=" ",
753            )
754
755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
758
759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
761
762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
766                sep=" ",
767                prefix=" ",
768                wrapped=False,
769            )
770
771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
772
773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
776                exp.Properties(
777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
778                ),
779                sep=" ",
780                prefix=" ",
781                wrapped=False,
782            )
783
784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
785        no_schema_binding = (
786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
787        )
788
789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
791
792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
798
799        if when:
800            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
801            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
802            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
803
804        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
806    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
807        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
809    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
810        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
811        if with_:
812            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
813        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
815    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
816        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
817        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
818
819        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
821    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
823        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
825    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
826        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
827        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
828        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
829        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
831    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
833        if self.BIT_START:
834            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
835        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
837    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        if self.HEX_START:
840            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
841        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
843    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        if self.BYTE_START:
846            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
847        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
849    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
850        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
851        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
853    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
855        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
856        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
857        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
859    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
860        type_value = expression.this
861
862        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
863            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
864        else:
865            type_sql = (
866                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
867                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
868                else type_value
869            )
870
871        nested = ""
872        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
873        values = ""
874
875        if interior:
876            if expression.args.get("nested"):
877                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
878                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
879                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
880                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
881                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
882            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
883                nested = f" {interior}"
884            else:
885                nested = f"({interior})"
886
887        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
888        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
890            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
891        ):
892            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
893
894        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
896    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
897        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
898        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
899        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
900        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
902    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
904        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
905        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
906        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
907        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
908        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
909        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
910        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
911        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
912        if self.RETURNING_END:
913            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
914        else:
915            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
918    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
920        kind = expression.args["kind"]
921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
922        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
923        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
924        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
925        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
926        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
927        return (
928            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
929        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
931    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
932        return self.prepend_ctes(
933            expression,
934            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
935        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
937    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
938        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
940    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
941        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
942        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
943        count = expression.args.get("count")
944        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
945        if expression.args.get("percent"):
946            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
947        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
948        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
950    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
952        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
953        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
955    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
956        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
957            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
958            return ""
959
960        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
962    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
963        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
964        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
965        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
966        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
967        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
968        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
969        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
971        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
972        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
973        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
974        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
975        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
976        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
977        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
979    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
980        text = expression.name
981        lower = text.lower()
982        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
983        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
984        if (
985            expression.quoted
986            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
987            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
988            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
989        ):
990            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
991        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
993    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
994        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
995        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
996        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
997        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
998        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1000    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1001        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1002        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1004    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1005        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1007    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1008        root_properties = []
1009        with_properties = []
1010
1011        for p in expression.expressions:
1012            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1013            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1014                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1017
1018        return self.root_properties(
1019            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1020        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1022    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1023        if properties.expressions:
1024            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1027    def properties(
1028        self,
1029        properties: exp.Properties,
1030        prefix: str = "",
1031        sep: str = ", ",
1032        suffix: str = "",
1033        wrapped: bool = True,
1034    ) -> str:
1035        if properties.expressions:
1036            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1037            if expressions:
1038                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1039                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1040        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1042    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1043        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1045    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1046        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1047        for p in properties.expressions:
1048            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1049            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1050                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1051            else:
1052                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1053
1054        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1056    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1057        property_cls = expression.__class__
1058        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1059            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1060
1061        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1062        if not property_name:
1063            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1064
1065        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1068        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1069        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1070        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1075        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        local = expression.args.get("local")
1080        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1081        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1082        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1083        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1084        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1087        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1089        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1092        if expression.args.get("default"):
1093            property = "DEFAULT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1095            property = "ON"
1096        else:
1097            property = "OFF"
1098        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1101        if expression.args.get("no"):
1102            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1103        if expression.args.get("default"):
1104            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105
1106        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1107        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1110        default = expression.args.get("default")
1111        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1112        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1113        if default or minimum or maximum:
1114            if default:
1115                prop = "DEFAULT"
1116            elif minimum:
1117                prop = "MINIMUM"
1118            else:
1119                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1120            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1121        units = expression.args.get("units")
1122        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1123        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1126        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1127        always = expression.args.get("always")
1128        default = expression.args.get("default")
1129        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1130        never = expression.args.get("never")
1131
1132        if autotemp is not None:
1133            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1134        elif always:
1135            prop = "ALWAYS"
1136        elif default:
1137            prop = "DEFAULT"
1138        elif manual:
1139            prop = "MANUAL"
1140        elif never:
1141            prop = "NEVER"
1142        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1145        no = expression.args.get("no")
1146        no = " NO" if no else ""
1147        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1148        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1149
1150        for_ = ""
1151        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1152            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1153        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1154            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1156            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1157        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1160        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1161        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1162        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1163        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1164        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1165        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1168        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1169        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1170        statistics_sql = ""
1171        if statistics is not None:
1172            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1173        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1175    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1176        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1177
1178        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1179            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1180        else:
1181            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182
1183        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1184        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1185        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1186
1187        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1188
1189        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1190        partition_sql = (
1191            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1192        )
1193        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1194        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1195        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1196        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1197        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1198
1199        if self.RETURNING_END:
1200            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1201        else:
1202            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1203
1204        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1205        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1207    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1208        return self.prepend_ctes(
1209            expression,
1210            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1211        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1213    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1216    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1217        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1219    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1220        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1222    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1223        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1224        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1225        if constraint:
1226            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1227        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1228        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1229        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1230        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1231        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1232        if expressions:
1233            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1234        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1236    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1237        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1239    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1240        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1241        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1242        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1243        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1244        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1245        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1246        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1247        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1248        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1249        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1250        null = expression.args.get("null")
1251        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1252        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1254    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1255        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1257    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1258        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1259        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1260        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1261        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1263    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1264        table = ".".join(
1265            part
1266            for part in [
1267                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1269                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1270            ]
1271            if part
1272        )
1273
1274        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1275        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1276        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1277        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1278        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1279        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1280        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1281        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1282        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1283        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1284
1285        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1287    def tablesample_sql(
1288        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1289    ) -> str:
1290        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1291            table = expression.this.copy()
1292            table.set("alias", None)
1293            this = self.sql(table)
1294            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1295        else:
1296            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297            alias = ""
1298        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1299        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1300        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1301        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1302        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1303        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1304        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1305        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1306        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1307        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1308        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1309        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1310        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1311            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1312        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1313        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1314        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1315        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1317    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1318        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1319
1320        if expression.this:
1321            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1323            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1324            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1325            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1326            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1327
1328        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1329        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1330        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1331        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1332        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1333        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1334        if include_nulls is not None:
1335            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1336        else:
1337            nulls = ""
1338        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1340    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1341        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1343    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1346        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1347        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1348        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1349        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1350        if self.RETURNING_END:
1351            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1352        else:
1353            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1354        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1357    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1358        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1359        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1360            args = self.expressions(expression)
1361            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1362            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1363            values = (
1364                f"({values})"
1365                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1366                else values
1367            )
1368            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1369
1370        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1371        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1372        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1373        # very slow.
1374        expression = expression.copy()
1375        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1376
1377        selects = []
1378
1379        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1380            row = tup.expressions
1381
1382            if i == 0 and column_names:
1383                row = [
1384                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1385                ]
1386
1387            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1388
1389        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1390        if len(selects) > 1:
1391            for select in selects[1:]:
1392                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1393                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1394                )
1395
1396        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1398    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1399        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1401    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1402        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1403        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1404        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1406    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1407        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1409    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1410        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1411
1412        if expression.args.get("all"):
1413            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1414
1415        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1416        grouping_sets = (
1417            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1418        )
1419
1420        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1421        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1422            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1423        else:
1424            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1425            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1426
1427        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1428        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1429            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1430        else:
1431            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1432            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1433
1434        groupings = csv(
1435            grouping_sets,
1436            cube_sql,
1437            rollup_sql,
1438            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1439            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1440        )
1441
1442        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1443            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1444
1445        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1447    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1448        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1449        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1451    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1452        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1453        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1454        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1455        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1456        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1458    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1459        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1461    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1462        op_sql = " ".join(
1463            op
1464            for op in (
1465                expression.method,
1466                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1467                expression.side,
1468                expression.kind,
1469                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1470            )
1471            if op
1472        )
1473        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1474        using = expression.args.get("using")
1475
1476        if not on_sql and using:
1477            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1478
1479        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1480
1481        if on_sql:
1482            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1483            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1484            if using:
1485                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1486            else:
1487                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1488        elif not op_sql:
1489            return f", {this_sql}"
1490
1491        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1492        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1494    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1495        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1496        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1497        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1499    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501
1502        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1503            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1504
1505        if expression.args.get("view"):
1506            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1507            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1508            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1509            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1510            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1511            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1512
1513        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1514        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1515        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1517    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        args = ", ".join(
1520            sql
1521            for sql in (
1522                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1523                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1524            )
1525            if sql
1526        )
1527        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1529    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1531        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1533    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1535        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1538        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1539        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1540        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1541        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1543    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1544        expressions = (
1545            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1546        )
1547        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1548        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1550    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1551        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1553    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1554        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1555            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1556            return ""
1557
1558        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1560        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1561        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1562
1563        if wait is not None:
1564            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1565                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1566            else:
1567                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1568
1569        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1571    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1572        text = expression.this or ""
1573        if expression.is_string:
1574            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1575        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1577    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1578        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1579        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1580            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1581        elif self.pretty:
1582            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1583        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1585    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1586        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1587        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1588        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1589        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1590        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1591        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1592        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1593        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1594        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1595        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1596        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1598    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1599        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1601    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1602        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1604    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1606        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1607        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1609    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1610        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1612    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1613        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1615    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1616        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1618    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1619        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1620        asc = not desc
1621
1622        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1623        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1624        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1625        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1626        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1627
1628        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1629        nulls_sort_change = ""
1630        if nulls_first and (
1631            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1632        ):
1633            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1634        elif (
1635            nulls_last
1636            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1637            and not nulls_are_last
1638        ):
1639            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1640
1641        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1642            self.unsupported(
1643                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1644            )
1645            nulls_sort_change = ""
1646
1647        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1649    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1650        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1651        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1652        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1653        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1654        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1655        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1656        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1657        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1658        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1660        definition_sqls = [
1661            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1662            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1663        ]
1664        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1665        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1666        body = "".join(
1667            (
1668                partition,
1669                order,
1670                measures,
1671                rows,
1672                after,
1673                pattern,
1674                define,
1675            )
1676        )
1677        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1678        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1679        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1681    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1682        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1683
1684        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1685        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1686
1687        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1688            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1689        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1690            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1691
1692        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1693
1694        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1695            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1696            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1697            else []
1698        )
1699
1700        return csv(
1701            *sqls,
1702            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1703            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1704            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1705            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1706            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1708            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1709            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1710            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1711            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1712            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1713            sep="",
1714        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1716    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1717        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1718    ) -> t.List[str]:
1719        return [
1720            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1721            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1722        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1724    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1725        return [
1726            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1727            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1728            if expression.args.get("windows")
1729            else "",
1730            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1731            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1732            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1733        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1735    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1736        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1737        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1738        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1740    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1743        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1744        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1745        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1746        top = (
1747            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1748            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1749            else ""
1750        )
1751
1752        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1753
1754        if kind:
1755            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1756                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1757            else:
1758                if kind == "STRUCT":
1759                    expressions = self.expressions(
1760                        sqls=[
1761                            self.sql(
1762                                exp.Struct(
1763                                    expressions=[
1764                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1765                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1766                                        )
1767                                        for e in expression.expressions
1768                                    ]
1769                                )
1770                            )
1771                        ]
1772                    )
1773                kind = ""
1774
1775        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1776        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1777            expression,
1778            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1779            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1780            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1781        )
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1784    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1787        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1788        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1790    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1791        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1793    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1794        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1795        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1796        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1797        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1798        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1800    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1803        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1805    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        kind = expression.text("kind")
1808        if kind:
1809            kind = f"{kind}."
1810        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1812    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1813        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1815    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1818
1819        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1820        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1821
1822        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1823        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1825    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1826        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1827        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1829    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1830        return self.prepend_ctes(
1831            expression,
1832            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1833        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1835    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1836        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1837        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1838        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1840    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1841        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1842        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1843        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1844            columns = alias.columns
1845            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1846        else:
1847            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1848        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1849        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1850        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1851        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1852        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1854    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1855        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1856        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1858    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1861        order = expression.args.get("order")
1862        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1863        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1864        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1865        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1866
1867        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1868
1869        first = expression.args.get("first")
1870        if first is None:
1871            first = ""
1872        else:
1873            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1874
1875        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1876            return f"{this} {alias}"
1877
1878        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1879        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1881    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1882        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1883        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1885    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1887        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1888        end = (
1889            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1890            or "CURRENT ROW"
1891        )
1892        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1894    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1896        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1897        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1899    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1901        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1902        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1903        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1905    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1906        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1907        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1908
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1911    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1912        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1914    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1915        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1917    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1919        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1920            this = self.wrap(this)
1921        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1923    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1924        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1926    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1928        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1929
1930        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1931            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1932            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1933
1934        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1935
1936        if default:
1937            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1938
1939        statements.append("END")
1940
1941        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1942            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1943
1944        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1946    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1951    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1952        order = expression.args.get("order")
1953        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1954        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1956    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1958        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1959        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1961    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1962        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1963
1964        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1965            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1966        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1967            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1968        else:
1969            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1971    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1972        expressions = expression.expressions
1973        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1974            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1975        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1977    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1978        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1979        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1981    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1982        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1983        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1984        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1985        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1986        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1987        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1988        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1989        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1991    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1992        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1995        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1997    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1998        expression = expression.copy()
1999        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2001    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2002        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2003        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2004        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2006    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2007        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2009    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2010        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2011        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2012        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2013        if unique_keys is not None:
2014            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2015        else:
2016            unique_keys = ""
2017        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2018        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2019        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2020        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2021        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2022        return self.func(
2023            "JSON_OBJECT",
2024            *expression.expressions,
2025            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2026        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2028    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2031        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2032        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2033        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2034        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2036    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2039        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2041        with_ = (
2042            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2043            if expressions
2044            else ""
2045        )
2046        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2048    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2049        query = expression.args.get("query")
2050        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2051        field = expression.args.get("field")
2052        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2053
2054        if query:
2055            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2056        elif unnest:
2057            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2058        elif field:
2059            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2060        else:
2061            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2062
2063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2065    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2066        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2068    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2069        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2070        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2071            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2072        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2073
2074        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2075            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2076            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2077
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        if this:
2080            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2081            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2082
2083        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2085    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2086        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2088    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2091        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2092        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2093        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2094        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2096    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2097        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2099    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2100        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2101            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2102        else:
2103            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2104            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2105
2106        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2108    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2109        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2110        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2112        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2114    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2115        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2117    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2118        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2119        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2122    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2125    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2128        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2130    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2133    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2134        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2136    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2137        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2139    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2140        if not self.pretty:
2141            return self.binary(expression, op)
2142
2143        sqls = tuple(
2144            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2145            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2146        )
2147
2148        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2149        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2151    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2154    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2157    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2158        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2160    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2163    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2166    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2169    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2170        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2171        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2172        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2174    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2175        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2178    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2181    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2184    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2187        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2188        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2189        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2191    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2193        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2194        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2195        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2196        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2197        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2198        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2199        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2200        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2202    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2203        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2204        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2205        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2206        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2207
2208        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2209            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2210
2211        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2213    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2214        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2216    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2217        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2218        if chain is not None:
2219            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2220
2221        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2223    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2224        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2225        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2226        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2228    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230
2231        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2232        if dtype:
2233            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2234            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2235            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2236            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2237            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2238
2239        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2240        if default:
2241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2242
2243        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2244            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2245
2246        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2248    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2249        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2250            # Remove db from tables
2251            expression = expression.transform(
2252                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2253            )
2254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2255        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2257    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2258        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2259
2260        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2261            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2266        else:
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2268
2269        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2270        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2272    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2273        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2274        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2275        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2277    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2279        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2280        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2281
2282        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2283        if enforced is not None:
2284            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2285
2286        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2288    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2289        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2291
2292        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2293        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2294        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2296    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2297        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2299    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2300        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2302    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2303        return self.sql(
2304            exp.Cast(
2305                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2306                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2307            )
2308        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2310    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2311        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2313    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2314        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2315            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2316        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2318    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2321    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2324    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2327    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2328        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2330    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2333    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2336    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2339    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2342    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2345    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2348    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2351    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2352        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2353            return self.sql(
2354                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2355            )
2356        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2358    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2361    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2364    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2367    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2370    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2371        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2373    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2374        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2376    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2377        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2379    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2382    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2385    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2388    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2389        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2391    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2392        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2394    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2397    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2398        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2400    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2401        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2402        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2405        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2407    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2408        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2411    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2412        args = []
2413
2414        for key in expression.arg_types:
2415            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2416
2417            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2418                for value in arg_value:
2419                    args.append(value)
2420            elif arg_value is not None:
2421                args.append(arg_value)
2422
2423        if self.normalize_functions:
2424            name = expression.sql_name()
2425        else:
2426            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2427
2428        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2430    def func(
2431        self,
2432        name: str,
2433        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2434        prefix: str = "(",
2435        suffix: str = ")",
2436    ) -> str:
2437        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2439    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2440        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2441        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2442            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2443        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2445    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2446        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2448    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2449        return format_time(
2450            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2451        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2453    def expressions(
2454        self,
2455        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2456        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2457        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2458        flat: bool = False,
2459        indent: bool = True,
2460        skip_first: bool = False,
2461        sep: str = ", ",
2462        prefix: str = "",
2463    ) -> str:
2464        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2465
2466        if not expressions:
2467            return ""
2468
2469        if flat:
2470            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2471
2472        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2473
2474        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2475        pad = " " * self.pad
2476        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2477
2478        result_sqls = []
2479        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2480            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2481            if not sql:
2482                continue
2483
2484            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2485
2486            if self.pretty:
2487                if self.leading_comma:
2488                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2489                else:
2490                    result_sqls.append(
2491                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2492                    )
2493            else:
2494                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2495
2496        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2497        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2499    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2500        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2501        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2502        if flat:
2503            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2504        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2506    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2507        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2508        if not property_name:
2509            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2510        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2512    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        op = self.seg(op)
2515        return self.query_modifiers(
2516            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2517        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2519    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2520        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2522    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2523        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2525    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2528        expressions = (
2529            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2530        )
2531        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2533    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2536        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2538    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2539        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2541    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2542        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2543        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2544        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2545        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2546
2547        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2548        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2549            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2550            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2551                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2552        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2553            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2554                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2555            else:
2556                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2557        else:
2558            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2559        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2561    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2562        table = expression.this
2563        table_alias = ""
2564
2565        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2566        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2567            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2568            table = table.copy()
2569            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2570
2571        this = self.sql(table)
2572        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2573        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2575
2576        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2578    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2579        if expression.args.get("format"):
2580            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2581
2582        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2584    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2587        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2588        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2589        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2591    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2594        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2595        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2597    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2600    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2601        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2603    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2604        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2605        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2606        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2607        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2608        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2610    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2613
2614        if having:
2615            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2616
2617        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2619    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2620        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2621        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2622        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2623        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2624        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2625        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2626        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2627        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2628        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2629        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2630        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2631        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2632        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2634    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2635        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2636        if key_block_size:
2637            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2638
2639        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2640        if using:
2641            return f"USING {using}"
2642
2643        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2644        if parser:
2645            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2646
2647        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2648        if comment:
2649            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2650
2651        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2652        if visible is not None:
2653            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2654
2655        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2656        if engine_attr:
2657            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2658
2659        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2660        if secondary_engine_attr:
2661            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2662
2663        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2664        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2666    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2670        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2671        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2672        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2673        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2674        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2675        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2676        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2677        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2679    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2680        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2681            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2682
2683        case = exp.Case().when(
2684            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2685            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2686            copy=False,
2687        )
2688        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2689        if else_cond:
2690            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2691
2692        return self.sql(case)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2695def cached_generator(
2696    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2697) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2698    """Returns a cached generator."""
2699    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2700    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2701    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.