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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 147    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 148
 149    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 157    }
 158
 159    STAR_MAPPING = {
 160        "except": "EXCEPT",
 161        "replace": "REPLACE",
 162    }
 163
 164    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 165        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 166        "seconds": "second",
 167        "minutes": "minute",
 168        "hours": "hour",
 169        "days": "day",
 170        "weeks": "week",
 171        "months": "month",
 172        "quarters": "quarter",
 173        "years": "year",
 174    }
 175
 176    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 177
 178    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 179
 180    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 181
 182    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 183        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 184        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 194        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 203        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 210        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 217        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 219        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 237        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238    }
 239
 240    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 241    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 242
 243    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 244    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 245        exp.Select,
 246        exp.From,
 247        exp.Where,
 248        exp.With,
 249    )
 250
 251    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 252    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 253        exp.Column,
 254        exp.Literal,
 255        exp.Neg,
 256        exp.Paren,
 257    )
 258
 259    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 260
 261    # Autofilled
 262    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 263    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 264    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 265    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 266    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 267    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 268    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 269    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 270    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 271    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 272
 273    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 274
 275    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 276    QUOTE_START = "'"
 277    QUOTE_END = "'"
 278    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 279    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 280    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 281    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 282
 283    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 284    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 290
 291    __slots__ = (
 292        "pretty",
 293        "identify",
 294        "normalize",
 295        "pad",
 296        "_indent",
 297        "normalize_functions",
 298        "unsupported_level",
 299        "max_unsupported",
 300        "leading_comma",
 301        "max_text_width",
 302        "comments",
 303        "unsupported_messages",
 304        "_escaped_quote_end",
 305        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 306        "_cache",
 307    )
 308
 309    def __init__(
 310        self,
 311        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 312        identify: str | bool = False,
 313        normalize: bool = False,
 314        pad: int = 2,
 315        indent: int = 2,
 316        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 317        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 318        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 319        leading_comma: bool = False,
 320        max_text_width: int = 80,
 321        comments: bool = True,
 322    ):
 323        import sqlglot
 324
 325        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 326        self.identify = identify
 327        self.normalize = normalize
 328        self.pad = pad
 329        self._indent = indent
 330        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 331        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 332        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 333        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 334        self.comments = comments
 335
 336        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 337        self.normalize_functions = (
 338            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 339        )
 340
 341        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 342        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 343        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 344        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 345
 346    def generate(
 347        self,
 348        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 349        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 350    ) -> str:
 351        """
 352        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 353
 354        Args:
 355            expression: The syntax tree.
 356            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 357                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 358
 359        Returns:
 360            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 361        """
 362        if cache is not None:
 363            self._cache = cache
 364
 365        self.unsupported_messages = []
 366        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 367        self._cache = None
 368
 369        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 370            return sql
 371
 372        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 373            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 374                logger.warning(msg)
 375        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 376            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 377
 378        if self.pretty:
 379            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 380        return sql
 381
 382    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 383        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 384            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 385        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 386
 387    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 388        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 389
 390    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 391        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 392
 393    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 394        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 395        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 396        return comment
 397
 398    def maybe_comment(
 399        self,
 400        sql: str,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 402        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        comments = (
 405            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 406            if self.comments
 407            else None
 408        )
 409
 410        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 411            return sql
 412
 413        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 414        comments_sql = sep.join(
 415            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 416        )
 417
 418        if not comments_sql:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 422            return (
 423                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 424                if sql[0].isspace()
 425                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 426            )
 427
 428        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 429
 430    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 431        this_sql = self.indent(
 432            self.sql(expression)
 433            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 434            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 435            level=1,
 436            pad=0,
 437        )
 438        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 439
 440    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 441        original = self.identify
 442        self.identify = False
 443        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 444        self.identify = original
 445        return result
 446
 447    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 448        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 449            return name.upper()
 450        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 451            return name.lower()
 452        return name
 453
 454    def indent(
 455        self,
 456        sql: str,
 457        level: int = 0,
 458        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 459        skip_first: bool = False,
 460        skip_last: bool = False,
 461    ) -> str:
 462        if not self.pretty:
 463            return sql
 464
 465        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 466        lines = sql.split("\n")
 467
 468        return "\n".join(
 469            line
 470            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 471            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 472            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 473        )
 474
 475    def sql(
 476        self,
 477        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 478        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 479        comment: bool = True,
 480    ) -> str:
 481        if not expression:
 482            return ""
 483
 484        if isinstance(expression, str):
 485            return expression
 486
 487        if key:
 488            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 489
 490        if self._cache is not None:
 491            expression_id = hash(expression)
 492
 493            if expression_id in self._cache:
 494                return self._cache[expression_id]
 495
 496        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 497
 498        if callable(transform):
 499            sql = transform(self, expression)
 500        elif transform:
 501            sql = transform
 502        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 503            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 504
 505            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 506                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 507            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 508                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 510                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 511            else:
 512                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 513        else:
 514            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 515
 516        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 517
 518        if self._cache is not None:
 519            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 520        return sql
 521
 522    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 523        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 524        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 525        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 526
 527    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 528        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 529        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 530        options = expression.args.get("options")
 531        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 532        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 533        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 534        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 535        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 536
 537    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 538        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 539            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 540        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 541        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 542
 543    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 544        return ".".join(
 545            self.sql(part)
 546            for part in (
 547                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 548                expression.args.get("db"),
 549                expression.args.get("table"),
 550                expression.args.get("this"),
 551            )
 552            if part
 553        )
 554
 555    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 558        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 559        return f"{position}{this}"
 560
 561    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 562        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 563        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 564        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 565        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 566        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 567        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 569        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 570
 571        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 572
 573    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 575        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 576        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 577
 578    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 579        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 580
 581    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 582        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 583            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 584        else:
 585            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586
 587        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 588
 589    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 590        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 591    ) -> str:
 592        this = ""
 593        if expression.this is not None:
 594            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 595            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 596
 597        start = expression.args.get("start")
 598        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 599        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 600        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 601        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 602        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 603        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 604        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 605        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 606        cycle_sql = ""
 607
 608        if cycle is not None:
 609            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 610            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 611
 612        sequence_opts = ""
 613        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 614            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 615            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 616
 617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 618        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 619
 620        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 621
 622    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 623        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 624
 625    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 626        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 627        if desc is not None:
 628            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 629        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 630
 631    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 633        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 634        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 635
 636    def createable_sql(
 637        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 638    ) -> str:
 639        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 640
 641    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 643        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 644        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 645
 646        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 647
 648        properties_sql = ""
 649        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 650            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 651        ):
 652            properties_sql = self.sql(
 653                exp.Properties(
 654                    expressions=[
 655                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 657                    ]
 658                )
 659            )
 660
 661        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 662        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 663        if expression_sql:
 664            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 665
 666            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 667                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 668                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 669                        exp.Properties(
 670                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 671                        ),
 672                        wrapped=False,
 673                    )
 674                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 675                else:
 676                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 677
 678        postindex_props_sql = ""
 679        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 680            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 681                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 682                wrapped=False,
 683                prefix=" ",
 684            )
 685
 686        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 687        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 688        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 689
 690        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 691        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 692
 693        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 694        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 695            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 696                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 697                sep=" ",
 698                prefix=" ",
 699                wrapped=False,
 700            )
 701
 702        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 703
 704        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 705        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 706            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 707                exp.Properties(
 708                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 709                ),
 710                sep=" ",
 711                prefix=" ",
 712                wrapped=False,
 713            )
 714
 715        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 716        no_schema_binding = (
 717            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 718        )
 719
 720        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 721        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 722
 723        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 724        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 725
 726    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 728        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 729
 730        if when:
 731            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 732            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 733            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 734
 735        return f"CLONE {this}"
 736
 737    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 738        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 739
 740    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 741        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 742        if with_:
 743            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 744        return sql
 745
 746    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 747        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 748        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 749
 750        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 751
 752    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 753        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 754        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 755
 756    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 757        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 759        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 760        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 761
 762    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        if self.BIT_START:
 765            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 766        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 767
 768    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        if self.HEX_START:
 771            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 772        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 773
 774    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.BYTE_START:
 777            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 778        return this
 779
 780    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 781        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 782        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 783
 784    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 787        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 788        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 789
 790    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 791        type_value = expression.this
 792        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 793        nested = ""
 794        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 795        values = ""
 796        if interior:
 797            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 798                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 799                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 800                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 801                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 802                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 803            else:
 804                nested = f"({interior})"
 805
 806        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 807
 808    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 809        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 810        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 811        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 812        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 813
 814    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 817        using_sql = (
 818            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 819            if expression.args.get("using")
 820            else ""
 821        )
 822        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 823        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 824        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 825        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 826        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 827
 828    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 831        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 832        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 833        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 834        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 835        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 836        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 837        return (
 838            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 839        )
 840
 841    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 842        return self.prepend_ctes(
 843            expression,
 844            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 845        )
 846
 847    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 848        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 849
 850    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 851        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 852        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 853        count = expression.args.get("count")
 854        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 855        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 856            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 857        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 858        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 859
 860    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 863        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 864
 865    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 866        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 867            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 868        return ""
 869
 870    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 871        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 872        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 873        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 874        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 875        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 876        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 877        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 878        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 879        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 880        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 881        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 882        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 883        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 884        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 885
 886    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 887        text = expression.name
 888        lower = text.lower()
 889        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 890        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 891        if (
 892            expression.quoted
 893            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 894            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 895            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 896        ):
 897            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 898        return text
 899
 900    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 901        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 902        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 903        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 904        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 905        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 906
 907    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 908        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 909        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 910
 911    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 912        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 913
 914    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 915        root_properties = []
 916        with_properties = []
 917
 918        for p in expression.expressions:
 919            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 920            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 921                with_properties.append(p)
 922            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 923                root_properties.append(p)
 924
 925        return self.root_properties(
 926            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 927        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 928
 929    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 930        if properties.expressions:
 931            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 932        return ""
 933
 934    def properties(
 935        self,
 936        properties: exp.Properties,
 937        prefix: str = "",
 938        sep: str = ", ",
 939        suffix: str = "",
 940        wrapped: bool = True,
 941    ) -> str:
 942        if properties.expressions:
 943            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 944            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 945            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 946        return ""
 947
 948    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 949        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 950
 951    def locate_properties(
 952        self, properties: exp.Properties
 953    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 954        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 955            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 956        }
 957
 958        for p in properties.expressions:
 959            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 960            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 961                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 962            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 963                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 964            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 975                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 976
 977        return properties_locs
 978
 979    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 980        property_cls = expression.__class__
 981        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 982            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 983
 984        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 985        if not property_name:
 986            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 987
 988        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 989
 990    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 991        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 992        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 993        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 994
 995    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 996        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 997        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 998        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 999
1000    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1001        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1002        local = expression.args.get("local")
1003        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1004        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1005        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1006        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1007        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1008
1009    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1010        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1012        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1013
1014    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1015        if expression.args.get("default"):
1016            property = "DEFAULT"
1017        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1018            property = "ON"
1019        else:
1020            property = "OFF"
1021        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1022
1023    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("no"):
1025            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1026        if expression.args.get("default"):
1027            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1028
1029        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1030        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1031
1032    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1033        default = expression.args.get("default")
1034        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1035        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1036        if default or minimum or maximum:
1037            if default:
1038                prop = "DEFAULT"
1039            elif minimum:
1040                prop = "MINIMUM"
1041            else:
1042                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1043            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1044        units = expression.args.get("units")
1045        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1046        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1047
1048    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1049        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1050        always = expression.args.get("always")
1051        default = expression.args.get("default")
1052        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1053        never = expression.args.get("never")
1054
1055        if autotemp is not None:
1056            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1057        elif always:
1058            prop = "ALWAYS"
1059        elif default:
1060            prop = "DEFAULT"
1061        elif manual:
1062            prop = "MANUAL"
1063        elif never:
1064            prop = "NEVER"
1065        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1066
1067    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1068        no = expression.args.get("no")
1069        no = " NO" if no else ""
1070        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1071        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1072
1073        for_ = ""
1074        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1075            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1076        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1077            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1078        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1079            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1080        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1081
1082    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1083        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1084        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1085        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1086        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1087        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1088        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1089
1090    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1091        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1092        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1093        statistics_sql = ""
1094        if statistics is not None:
1095            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1096        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1097
1098    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1099        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1100
1101        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1102            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1103        else:
1104            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1105
1106        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1107        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1108        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1109
1110        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1111        partition_sql = (
1112            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1113        )
1114        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1115        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1116        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1117        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1118        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1119        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1120        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1121
1122    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1123        return self.prepend_ctes(
1124            expression,
1125            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1126        )
1127
1128    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1129        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1130
1131    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1133
1134    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1135        return expression.name.upper()
1136
1137    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1138        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1139        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1140        if constraint:
1141            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1142        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1143        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1144        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1145        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1146        if expressions:
1147            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1148        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1149
1150    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1151        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1152
1153    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1154        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1155        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1156        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1157        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1158        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1159        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1160        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1161        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1162        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1163        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1164        null = expression.args.get("null")
1165        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1166        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1167
1168    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1169        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1170
1171    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1172        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1173        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1174        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1175        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1176
1177    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1178        table = ".".join(
1179            part
1180            for part in [
1181                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1182                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1183                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1184            ]
1185            if part
1186        )
1187
1188        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1189        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1190        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1191        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1192        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1193        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1194        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1195        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1196        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1197        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1198
1199        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1200
1201    def tablesample_sql(
1202        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1203    ) -> str:
1204        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1205            table = expression.this.copy()
1206            table.set("alias", None)
1207            this = self.sql(table)
1208            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1209        else:
1210            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211            alias = ""
1212        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1213        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1214        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1215        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1216        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1217        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1218        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1219        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1220        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1221        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1222        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1223        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1224        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1225            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1226        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1227        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1228        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1229        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1230
1231    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1233
1234        if expression.this:
1235            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1237            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1238            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1239            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1240            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1241
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1244        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1245        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1246        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1247        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1248
1249    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1250        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1251
1252    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1255        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1256        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1257        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1258        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1259        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1260        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1261
1262    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1263        args = self.expressions(expression)
1264        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1265        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1266        values = (
1267            f"({values})"
1268            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1269            else values
1270        )
1271        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1272
1273    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1274        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1275
1276    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1277        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1278        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1279        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1280
1281    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1282        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1283
1284    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1285        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1286
1287        if expression.args.get("all"):
1288            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1289
1290        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1291        grouping_sets = (
1292            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1293        )
1294
1295        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1296        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1297            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1298        else:
1299            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1300            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1301
1302        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1303        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1304            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1305        else:
1306            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1307            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1308
1309        groupings = csv(
1310            grouping_sets,
1311            cube_sql,
1312            rollup_sql,
1313            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1314            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1315        )
1316
1317        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1318            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1319
1320        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1321
1322    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1323        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1324        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1325
1326    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1327        op_sql = " ".join(
1328            op
1329            for op in (
1330                expression.method,
1331                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1332                expression.side,
1333                expression.kind,
1334                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1335            )
1336            if op
1337        )
1338        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        using = expression.args.get("using")
1340
1341        if not on_sql and using:
1342            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1343
1344        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345
1346        if on_sql:
1347            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1348            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1349            if using:
1350                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1351            else:
1352                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1353        elif not op_sql:
1354            return f", {this_sql}"
1355
1356        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1357        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1358
1359    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1360        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1362        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1363
1364    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1368            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1369
1370        if expression.args.get("view"):
1371            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1372            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1373            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1374            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1375            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1376            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1377
1378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1380        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1381
1382    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        args = ", ".join(
1385            sql
1386            for sql in (
1387                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1388                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1389            )
1390            if sql
1391        )
1392        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1393
1394    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1397
1398    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1400        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1403        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1404        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1405        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1406        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1407
1408    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1409        expressions = (
1410            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1411        )
1412        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1413        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1414
1415    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1416        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1417
1418    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1419        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1420            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1421            return ""
1422
1423        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1425        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1426        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1427
1428        if wait is not None:
1429            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1430                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1431            else:
1432                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1433
1434        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1435
1436    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1437        text = expression.this or ""
1438        if expression.is_string:
1439            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1440        return text
1441
1442    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1444        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1445            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1446        elif self.pretty:
1447            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1448        return text
1449
1450    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1451        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1452        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1453        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1454        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1455        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1456        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1457        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1458        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1459        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1460        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1461        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1462
1463    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1464        return "NULL"
1465
1466    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1467        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1468
1469    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1472        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1473
1474    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1475        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1476
1477    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1478        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1479
1480    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1481        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1482
1483    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1484        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1485        asc = not desc
1486
1487        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1488        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1489        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1490        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1491        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1492
1493        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1494        nulls_sort_change = ""
1495        if nulls_first and (
1496            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1497        ):
1498            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1499        elif (
1500            nulls_last
1501            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1502            and not nulls_are_last
1503        ):
1504            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1505
1506        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1507            self.unsupported(
1508                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1509            )
1510            nulls_sort_change = ""
1511
1512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1513
1514    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1515        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1516        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1517        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1518        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1519        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1520        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1521        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1522        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1523        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1524        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1525        definition_sqls = [
1526            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1527            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1528        ]
1529        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1530        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1531        body = "".join(
1532            (
1533                partition,
1534                order,
1535                measures,
1536                rows,
1537                after,
1538                pattern,
1539                define,
1540            )
1541        )
1542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1543        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1544        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1545
1546    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1547        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1548
1549        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1550            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1551        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1552            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1553
1554        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1555
1556        return csv(
1557            *sqls,
1558            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1559            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1560            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1561            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1562            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1563            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1564            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1565            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1566            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1567            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1568            sep="",
1569        )
1570
1571    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1572        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1573    ) -> t.List[str]:
1574        return [
1575            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1576            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1577        ]
1578
1579    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1580        return [
1581            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1582            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1583            if expression.args.get("windows")
1584            else "",
1585        ]
1586
1587    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1588        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1589        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1590        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1591
1592    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1593        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1594        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1595        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1596        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1597        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1598
1599        if kind:
1600            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1601                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1602            else:
1603                if kind == "STRUCT":
1604                    expressions = self.expressions(
1605                        sqls=[
1606                            self.sql(
1607                                exp.Struct(
1608                                    expressions=[
1609                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1610                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1611                                        )
1612                                        for e in expression.expressions
1613                                    ]
1614                                )
1615                            )
1616                        ]
1617                    )
1618                kind = ""
1619
1620        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1621        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1622            expression,
1623            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1624            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1625            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1626        )
1627        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1628
1629    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1631        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1632        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1633        return f"{this}{sql}"
1634
1635    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1636        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1637
1638    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1639        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1640        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1641        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1642        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1643        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1644
1645    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1647        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1648        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1649
1650    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1652        kind = expression.text("kind")
1653        if kind:
1654            kind = f"{kind}."
1655        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1656
1657    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1658        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1659
1660    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1661        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1662        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1663
1664        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1665        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1666
1667        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1668        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1669
1670    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1671        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1672        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1673
1674    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1675        return self.prepend_ctes(
1676            expression,
1677            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1678        )
1679
1680    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1681        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1682        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1683        return f"UNION{kind}"
1684
1685    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1686        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1687        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1688        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1689            columns = alias.columns
1690            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1691        else:
1692            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1693        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1694        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1695        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1696        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1697        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1698
1699    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1700        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1701        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1702
1703    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1706        order = expression.args.get("order")
1707        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1708        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1709        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1710        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1711
1712        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1713
1714        first = expression.args.get("first")
1715        if first is None:
1716            first = ""
1717        else:
1718            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1719
1720        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1721            return f"{this} {alias}"
1722
1723        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1724        return f"{this} ({args})"
1725
1726    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1727        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1728        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1729
1730    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1731        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1732        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1733        end = (
1734            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1735            or "CURRENT ROW"
1736        )
1737        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1738
1739    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1741        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1742        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1743
1744    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1746        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1747        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1748        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1749
1750    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1751        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1752        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1753
1754        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1755
1756    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1757        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1758
1759    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1760        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1761
1762    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1764        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1765            this = self.wrap(this)
1766        return f"ANY {this}"
1767
1768    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1769        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1770
1771    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1773        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1774
1775        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1776            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1777            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1778
1779        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1780
1781        if default:
1782            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1783
1784        statements.append("END")
1785
1786        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1787            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1788
1789        return " ".join(statements)
1790
1791    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1794        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1795
1796    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1797        order = expression.args.get("order")
1798        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1799        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1800
1801    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1804        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1805
1806    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1807        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1808
1809        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1810            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1811        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1812            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1813        else:
1814            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1815
1816    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1817        expressions = expression.expressions
1818        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1819            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1820        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1821
1822    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1823        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1824        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1825
1826    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1827        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1828        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1829        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1830        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1831        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1832        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1833        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1834        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1835
1836    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1838        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1839        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1840        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1841
1842    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1843        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1844
1845    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1846        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1847        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1848        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1849
1850    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1852
1853    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1854        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1855        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1856        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1857        if unique_keys is not None:
1858            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1859        else:
1860            unique_keys = ""
1861        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1862        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1863        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1864        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1865        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1866        return self.func(
1867            "JSON_OBJECT",
1868            *expression.expressions,
1869            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1870        )
1871
1872    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1875        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1876        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1877        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1878        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1879
1880    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1882        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1883        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1884        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1885        with_ = (
1886            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1887            if expressions
1888            else ""
1889        )
1890        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1891
1892    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1893        query = expression.args.get("query")
1894        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1895        field = expression.args.get("field")
1896        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1897
1898        if query:
1899            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1900        elif unnest:
1901            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1902        elif field:
1903            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1904        else:
1905            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1906
1907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1908
1909    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1910        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1911
1912    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1913        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1914        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1915            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1916        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1917
1918        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1919            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1920            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1921
1922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1923        if this:
1924            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1925            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1926
1927        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1928
1929    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1930        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1931
1932    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1936        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1937        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1938        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1939
1940    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1941        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1942
1943    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1944        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1945            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1946        else:
1947            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1948            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1949
1950        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1951
1952    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1953        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1954        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1955        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1956        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1957
1958    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1959        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1960
1961    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1965
1966    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1967        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1968
1969    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1972        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1973
1974    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1975        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1976
1977    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1978        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1979
1980    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1981        if not self.pretty:
1982            return self.binary(expression, op)
1983
1984        sqls = tuple(
1985            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1986            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1987        )
1988
1989        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1990        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1991
1992    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1993        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1994
1995    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1996        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1997
1998    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1999        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2000
2001    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2002        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2003
2004    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2005        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2006
2007    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2008        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2009
2010    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2011        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2012        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2013        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2014
2015    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2016        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2017        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2018
2019    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2020        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2021
2022    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2024
2025    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2027        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2028        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2029        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2030        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2031
2032    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2035        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2036        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2037        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2038        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2039        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2040        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2041        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2042
2043    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2044        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2045        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2046        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2047        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2048
2049        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2050            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2051
2052        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2053
2054    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2055        return "BEGIN"
2056
2057    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2058        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2059        if chain is not None:
2060            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2061
2062        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2063
2064    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2065        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2066        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2067        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2068
2069    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2071
2072        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2073        if dtype:
2074            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2075            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2076            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2077            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2078            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2079
2080        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2081        if default:
2082            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2083
2084        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2085            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2086
2087        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2088
2089    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2090        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2091            # Remove db from tables
2092            expression = expression.transform(
2093                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2094            )
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2097
2098    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2099        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2100
2101        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2103        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2105        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2106            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2107        else:
2108            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2109
2110        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2111        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2112
2113    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2115        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2116        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2117
2118    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2120        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2121        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2122
2123        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2124        if enforced is not None:
2125            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2126
2127        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2128
2129    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2130        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2131        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2132
2133        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2134        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2135        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2136
2137    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2138        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2139
2140    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2142
2143    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2144        return self.sql(
2145            exp.Cast(
2146                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2147                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2148            )
2149        )
2150
2151    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2153
2154    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2155        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2156            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2157        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2158
2159    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2160        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2161
2162    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2164
2165    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2167
2168    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2169        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2170
2171    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2172        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2173
2174    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2175        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2176
2177    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2178        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2179
2180    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2182
2183    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2184        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2185
2186    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2187        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2188
2189    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2190        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2191
2192    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2193        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2194            return self.sql(
2195                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2196            )
2197        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2198
2199    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2200        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2201
2202    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2203        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2204
2205    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2206        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2207
2208    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2209        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2210
2211    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2212        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2213
2214    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2215        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2216
2217    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2218        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2219
2220    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2221        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2222
2223    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2224        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2225
2226    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2227        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2228
2229    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2230        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2231
2232    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2233        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2234
2235    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2236        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2237
2238    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2239        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2240
2241    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2242        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2243        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2245        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2246        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2247
2248    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2249        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2250        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2251
2252    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2253        args = []
2254        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2255            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2256                for value in arg_value:
2257                    args.append(value)
2258            else:
2259                args.append(arg_value)
2260
2261        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2262
2263    def func(
2264        self,
2265        name: str,
2266        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2267        prefix: str = "(",
2268        suffix: str = ")",
2269    ) -> str:
2270        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2271
2272    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2273        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2274        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2275            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2276        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2277
2278    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2279        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2280
2281    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2282        return format_time(
2283            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2284        )
2285
2286    def expressions(
2287        self,
2288        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2289        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2290        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2291        flat: bool = False,
2292        indent: bool = True,
2293        sep: str = ", ",
2294        prefix: str = "",
2295    ) -> str:
2296        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2297
2298        if not expressions:
2299            return ""
2300
2301        if flat:
2302            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2303
2304        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2305
2306        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2307        pad = " " * self.pad
2308        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2309
2310        result_sqls = []
2311        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2312            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2313            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2314
2315            if self.pretty:
2316                if self.leading_comma:
2317                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2318                else:
2319                    result_sqls.append(
2320                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2321                    )
2322            else:
2323                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2324
2325        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2326        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2327
2328    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2329        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2330        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2331        if flat:
2332            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2333        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2334
2335    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2336        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2337        if not property_name:
2338            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2339        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2340
2341    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        op = self.seg(op)
2344        return self.query_modifiers(
2345            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2346        )
2347
2348    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2349        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2350
2351    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2352        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2353
2354    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2357        expressions = (
2358            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2359        )
2360        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2361
2362    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2365        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2366
2367    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2369
2370    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2371        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2372        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2373        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2374        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2375
2376        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2377        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2378            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2379            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2380                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2381        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2382            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2383                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2384            else:
2385                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2386        else:
2387            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2388        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2389
2390    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2393        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2394        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2395
2396    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2397        if expression.args.get("format"):
2398            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2399
2400        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2401
2402    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2405        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2406        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2407        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2408
2409    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2410        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2411        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2412        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2413        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2414
2415    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2416        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2417
2418    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2419        return ""
2420
2421    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2423        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2424        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2425        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2426        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2427
2428    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2431
2432        if having:
2433            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2434
2435        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2436
2437
2438def cached_generator(
2439    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2440) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2441    """Returns a cached generator."""
2442    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2443    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2444    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 145    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 146
 147    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 148    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 149
 150    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 158    }
 159
 160    STAR_MAPPING = {
 161        "except": "EXCEPT",
 162        "replace": "REPLACE",
 163    }
 164
 165    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 166        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 167        "seconds": "second",
 168        "minutes": "minute",
 169        "hours": "hour",
 170        "days": "day",
 171        "weeks": "week",
 172        "months": "month",
 173        "quarters": "quarter",
 174        "years": "year",
 175    }
 176
 177    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 178
 179    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 180
 181    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 182
 183    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 184        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 185        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 189        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 194        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 195        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 202        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 204        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 207        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 211        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 213        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 214        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 216        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 220        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239    }
 240
 241    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 242    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 243
 244    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 245    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 246        exp.Select,
 247        exp.From,
 248        exp.Where,
 249        exp.With,
 250    )
 251
 252    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 253    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 254        exp.Column,
 255        exp.Literal,
 256        exp.Neg,
 257        exp.Paren,
 258    )
 259
 260    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 261
 262    # Autofilled
 263    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 264    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 265    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 266    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 267    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 268    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 269    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 270    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 271    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 272    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 273
 274    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 275
 276    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 277    QUOTE_START = "'"
 278    QUOTE_END = "'"
 279    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 280    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 281    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 282    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 283
 284    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 285    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 290    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 291
 292    __slots__ = (
 293        "pretty",
 294        "identify",
 295        "normalize",
 296        "pad",
 297        "_indent",
 298        "normalize_functions",
 299        "unsupported_level",
 300        "max_unsupported",
 301        "leading_comma",
 302        "max_text_width",
 303        "comments",
 304        "unsupported_messages",
 305        "_escaped_quote_end",
 306        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 307        "_cache",
 308    )
 309
 310    def __init__(
 311        self,
 312        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 313        identify: str | bool = False,
 314        normalize: bool = False,
 315        pad: int = 2,
 316        indent: int = 2,
 317        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 318        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 319        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 320        leading_comma: bool = False,
 321        max_text_width: int = 80,
 322        comments: bool = True,
 323    ):
 324        import sqlglot
 325
 326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 327        self.identify = identify
 328        self.normalize = normalize
 329        self.pad = pad
 330        self._indent = indent
 331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 333        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 334        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 335        self.comments = comments
 336
 337        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 338        self.normalize_functions = (
 339            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 340        )
 341
 342        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 343        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 344        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 345        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 346
 347    def generate(
 348        self,
 349        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 350        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 351    ) -> str:
 352        """
 353        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 354
 355        Args:
 356            expression: The syntax tree.
 357            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 358                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 359
 360        Returns:
 361            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 362        """
 363        if cache is not None:
 364            self._cache = cache
 365
 366        self.unsupported_messages = []
 367        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 368        self._cache = None
 369
 370        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 371            return sql
 372
 373        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 374            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 375                logger.warning(msg)
 376        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 377            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 378
 379        if self.pretty:
 380            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 381        return sql
 382
 383    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 385            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 386        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 387
 388    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 389        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 390
 391    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 392        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 393
 394    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 395        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 396        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 397        return comment
 398
 399    def maybe_comment(
 400        self,
 401        sql: str,
 402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 403        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 404    ) -> str:
 405        comments = (
 406            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 407            if self.comments
 408            else None
 409        )
 410
 411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 412            return sql
 413
 414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 415        comments_sql = sep.join(
 416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 417        )
 418
 419        if not comments_sql:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 423            return (
 424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 425                if sql[0].isspace()
 426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 427            )
 428
 429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 430
 431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 432        this_sql = self.indent(
 433            self.sql(expression)
 434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 436            level=1,
 437            pad=0,
 438        )
 439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 440
 441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 442        original = self.identify
 443        self.identify = False
 444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 445        self.identify = original
 446        return result
 447
 448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 450            return name.upper()
 451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 452            return name.lower()
 453        return name
 454
 455    def indent(
 456        self,
 457        sql: str,
 458        level: int = 0,
 459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 460        skip_first: bool = False,
 461        skip_last: bool = False,
 462    ) -> str:
 463        if not self.pretty:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 467        lines = sql.split("\n")
 468
 469        return "\n".join(
 470            line
 471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 474        )
 475
 476    def sql(
 477        self,
 478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 480        comment: bool = True,
 481    ) -> str:
 482        if not expression:
 483            return ""
 484
 485        if isinstance(expression, str):
 486            return expression
 487
 488        if key:
 489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 490
 491        if self._cache is not None:
 492            expression_id = hash(expression)
 493
 494            if expression_id in self._cache:
 495                return self._cache[expression_id]
 496
 497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 498
 499        if callable(transform):
 500            sql = transform(self, expression)
 501        elif transform:
 502            sql = transform
 503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 505
 506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 512            else:
 513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 514        else:
 515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 516
 517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 518
 519        if self._cache is not None:
 520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 521        return sql
 522
 523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 527
 528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 531        options = expression.args.get("options")
 532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 537
 538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 543
 544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 545        return ".".join(
 546            self.sql(part)
 547            for part in (
 548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 549                expression.args.get("db"),
 550                expression.args.get("table"),
 551                expression.args.get("this"),
 552            )
 553            if part
 554        )
 555
 556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 560        return f"{position}{this}"
 561
 562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 571
 572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 573
 574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 578
 579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 581
 582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 585        else:
 586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 587
 588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 589
 590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 592    ) -> str:
 593        this = ""
 594        if expression.this is not None:
 595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 597
 598        start = expression.args.get("start")
 599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 607        cycle_sql = ""
 608
 609        if cycle is not None:
 610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 612
 613        sequence_opts = ""
 614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 617
 618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 620
 621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 622
 623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 625
 626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 628        if desc is not None:
 629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 631
 632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 636
 637    def createable_sql(
 638        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 639    ) -> str:
 640        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 641
 642    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 644        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 645        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 646
 647        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 648
 649        properties_sql = ""
 650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 652        ):
 653            properties_sql = self.sql(
 654                exp.Properties(
 655                    expressions=[
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 658                    ]
 659                )
 660            )
 661
 662        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 663        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 664        if expression_sql:
 665            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 666
 667            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 668                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 669                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 670                        exp.Properties(
 671                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 672                        ),
 673                        wrapped=False,
 674                    )
 675                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 676                else:
 677                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 678
 679        postindex_props_sql = ""
 680        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 681            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 682                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 683                wrapped=False,
 684                prefix=" ",
 685            )
 686
 687        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 688        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 689        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 690
 691        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 692        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 693
 694        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 696            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 698                sep=" ",
 699                prefix=" ",
 700                wrapped=False,
 701            )
 702
 703        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 704
 705        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 707            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                exp.Properties(
 709                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 710                ),
 711                sep=" ",
 712                prefix=" ",
 713                wrapped=False,
 714            )
 715
 716        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 717        no_schema_binding = (
 718            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 719        )
 720
 721        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 722        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 723
 724        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 725        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 726
 727    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 729        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 730
 731        if when:
 732            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 733            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 734            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 735
 736        return f"CLONE {this}"
 737
 738    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 739        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 740
 741    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 742        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 743        if with_:
 744            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 745        return sql
 746
 747    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 748        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 749        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 750
 751        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 752
 753    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 754        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 755        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 756
 757    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 758        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 760        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 761        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 762
 763    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 765        if self.BIT_START:
 766            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 767        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 768
 769    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        if self.HEX_START:
 772            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 773        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 774
 775    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        if self.BYTE_START:
 778            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 779        return this
 780
 781    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 782        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 783        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 784
 785    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 787        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 788        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 789        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 790
 791    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 792        type_value = expression.this
 793        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 794        nested = ""
 795        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 796        values = ""
 797        if interior:
 798            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 799                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 800                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 801                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 802                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 803                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 804            else:
 805                nested = f"({interior})"
 806
 807        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 808
 809    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 810        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 811        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 812        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 813        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 814
 815    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 817        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 818        using_sql = (
 819            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 820            if expression.args.get("using")
 821            else ""
 822        )
 823        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 824        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 825        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 826        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 827        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 828
 829    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 832        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 833        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 834        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 835        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 836        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 837        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 838        return (
 839            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 840        )
 841
 842    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 843        return self.prepend_ctes(
 844            expression,
 845            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 846        )
 847
 848    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 849        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 850
 851    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 852        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 853        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 854        count = expression.args.get("count")
 855        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 856        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 857            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 858        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 859        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 860
 861    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 864        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 865
 866    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 867        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 868            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 869        return ""
 870
 871    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 872        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 873        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 874        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 875        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 876        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 877        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 878        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 879        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 880        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 881        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 882        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 883        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 884        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 885        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 886
 887    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 888        text = expression.name
 889        lower = text.lower()
 890        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 891        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 892        if (
 893            expression.quoted
 894            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 895            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 896            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 897        ):
 898            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 899        return text
 900
 901    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 902        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 903        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 904        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 905        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 906        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 907
 908    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 909        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 910        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 911
 912    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 913        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 914
 915    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 916        root_properties = []
 917        with_properties = []
 918
 919        for p in expression.expressions:
 920            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 921            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 922                with_properties.append(p)
 923            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 924                root_properties.append(p)
 925
 926        return self.root_properties(
 927            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 928        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 929
 930    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 931        if properties.expressions:
 932            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 933        return ""
 934
 935    def properties(
 936        self,
 937        properties: exp.Properties,
 938        prefix: str = "",
 939        sep: str = ", ",
 940        suffix: str = "",
 941        wrapped: bool = True,
 942    ) -> str:
 943        if properties.expressions:
 944            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 945            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 946            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 947        return ""
 948
 949    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 950        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 951
 952    def locate_properties(
 953        self, properties: exp.Properties
 954    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 955        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 956            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 957        }
 958
 959        for p in properties.expressions:
 960            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 961            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 976                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 977
 978        return properties_locs
 979
 980    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 981        property_cls = expression.__class__
 982        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 983            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 984
 985        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 986        if not property_name:
 987            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 988
 989        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 990
 991    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 992        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 993        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 994        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 995
 996    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 997        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 998        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 999        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1000
1001    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1002        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1003        local = expression.args.get("local")
1004        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1005        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1006        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1007        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1008        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1009
1010    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1011        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1012        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1013        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1014
1015    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1016        if expression.args.get("default"):
1017            property = "DEFAULT"
1018        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1019            property = "ON"
1020        else:
1021            property = "OFF"
1022        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1023
1024    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1025        if expression.args.get("no"):
1026            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027        if expression.args.get("default"):
1028            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1029
1030        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1031        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1032
1033    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1034        default = expression.args.get("default")
1035        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1036        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1037        if default or minimum or maximum:
1038            if default:
1039                prop = "DEFAULT"
1040            elif minimum:
1041                prop = "MINIMUM"
1042            else:
1043                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1044            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1045        units = expression.args.get("units")
1046        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1047        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1048
1049    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1050        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1051        always = expression.args.get("always")
1052        default = expression.args.get("default")
1053        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1054        never = expression.args.get("never")
1055
1056        if autotemp is not None:
1057            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1058        elif always:
1059            prop = "ALWAYS"
1060        elif default:
1061            prop = "DEFAULT"
1062        elif manual:
1063            prop = "MANUAL"
1064        elif never:
1065            prop = "NEVER"
1066        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1067
1068    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1069        no = expression.args.get("no")
1070        no = " NO" if no else ""
1071        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1072        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1073
1074        for_ = ""
1075        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1076            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1078            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1079        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1080            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1081        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1082
1083    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1084        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1085        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1086        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1087        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1088        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1089        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1090
1091    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1092        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1093        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1094        statistics_sql = ""
1095        if statistics is not None:
1096            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1097        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1098
1099    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1100        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1101
1102        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1103            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1104        else:
1105            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1106
1107        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1108        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1109        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1110
1111        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1112        partition_sql = (
1113            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1114        )
1115        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1116        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1117        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1118        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1119        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1120        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1122
1123    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(
1125            expression,
1126            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1127        )
1128
1129    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1130        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1131
1132    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1134
1135    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1136        return expression.name.upper()
1137
1138    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1139        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1140        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1141        if constraint:
1142            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1143        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1144        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1145        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1147        if expressions:
1148            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1149        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1150
1151    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1152        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1153
1154    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1155        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1156        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1157        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1158        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1159        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1160        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1161        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1162        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1163        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1164        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1165        null = expression.args.get("null")
1166        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1167        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1168
1169    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1170        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1171
1172    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1173        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1174        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1175        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1176        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1177
1178    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1179        table = ".".join(
1180            part
1181            for part in [
1182                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1183                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1184                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1185            ]
1186            if part
1187        )
1188
1189        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1190        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1191        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1192        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1193        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1194        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1195        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1196        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1197        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1198        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1199
1200        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1201
1202    def tablesample_sql(
1203        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1204    ) -> str:
1205        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1206            table = expression.this.copy()
1207            table.set("alias", None)
1208            this = self.sql(table)
1209            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1210        else:
1211            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212            alias = ""
1213        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1214        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1215        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1216        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1217        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1218        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1219        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1220        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1221        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1222        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1223        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1224        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1225        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1226            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1227        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1228        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1229        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1230        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1231
1232    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1233        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1234
1235        if expression.this:
1236            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1237            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1238            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1239            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1240            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1241            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1242
1243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1244        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1245        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1246        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1247        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1248        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1249
1250    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1251        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1252
1253    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1256        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1257        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1258        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1259        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1260        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1261        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1262
1263    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1264        args = self.expressions(expression)
1265        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1266        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1267        values = (
1268            f"({values})"
1269            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1270            else values
1271        )
1272        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1273
1274    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1275        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1276
1277    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1278        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1279        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1280        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1281
1282    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1283        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1284
1285    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1286        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1287
1288        if expression.args.get("all"):
1289            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1290
1291        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1292        grouping_sets = (
1293            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1294        )
1295
1296        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1297        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1298            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1299        else:
1300            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1301            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1302
1303        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1304        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1305            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1306        else:
1307            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1308            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1309
1310        groupings = csv(
1311            grouping_sets,
1312            cube_sql,
1313            rollup_sql,
1314            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1315            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1316        )
1317
1318        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1319            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1320
1321        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1322
1323    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1324        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1325        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1326
1327    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1328        op_sql = " ".join(
1329            op
1330            for op in (
1331                expression.method,
1332                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1333                expression.side,
1334                expression.kind,
1335                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1336            )
1337            if op
1338        )
1339        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1340        using = expression.args.get("using")
1341
1342        if not on_sql and using:
1343            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1344
1345        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346
1347        if on_sql:
1348            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1349            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1350            if using:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1352            else:
1353                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1354        elif not op_sql:
1355            return f", {this_sql}"
1356
1357        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1358        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1359
1360    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1361        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1363        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1364
1365    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367
1368        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1369            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1370
1371        if expression.args.get("view"):
1372            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1373            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1374            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1375            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1376            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1377            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1378
1379        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1380        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1381        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1382
1383    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        args = ", ".join(
1386            sql
1387            for sql in (
1388                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1389                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1390            )
1391            if sql
1392        )
1393        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1394
1395    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1398
1399    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1401        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1404        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1405        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1406        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1407        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1408
1409    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1410        expressions = (
1411            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1412        )
1413        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1414        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1415
1416    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1417        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1418
1419    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1420        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1421            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1422            return ""
1423
1424        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1426        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1427        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1428
1429        if wait is not None:
1430            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1431                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1432            else:
1433                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1434
1435        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1436
1437    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1438        text = expression.this or ""
1439        if expression.is_string:
1440            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1441        return text
1442
1443    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1444        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1445        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1446            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1447        elif self.pretty:
1448            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1449        return text
1450
1451    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1452        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1453        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1454        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1455        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1456        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1457        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1458        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1459        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1460        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1461        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1462        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1463
1464    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1465        return "NULL"
1466
1467    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1468        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1469
1470    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1473        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1474
1475    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1476        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1477
1478    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1479        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1480
1481    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1482        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1483
1484    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1485        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1486        asc = not desc
1487
1488        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1489        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1490        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1491        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1492        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1493
1494        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1495        nulls_sort_change = ""
1496        if nulls_first and (
1497            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1498        ):
1499            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1500        elif (
1501            nulls_last
1502            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1503            and not nulls_are_last
1504        ):
1505            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1506
1507        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1508            self.unsupported(
1509                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1510            )
1511            nulls_sort_change = ""
1512
1513        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1514
1515    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1516        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1517        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1518        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1519        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1520        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1521        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1522        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1523        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1524        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1525        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1526        definition_sqls = [
1527            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1528            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1529        ]
1530        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1531        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1532        body = "".join(
1533            (
1534                partition,
1535                order,
1536                measures,
1537                rows,
1538                after,
1539                pattern,
1540                define,
1541            )
1542        )
1543        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1544        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1545        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1546
1547    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1548        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1549
1550        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1551            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1552        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1553            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1554
1555        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1556
1557        return csv(
1558            *sqls,
1559            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1560            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1561            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1562            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1563            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1564            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1565            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1566            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1567            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1568            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1569            sep="",
1570        )
1571
1572    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1573        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1574    ) -> t.List[str]:
1575        return [
1576            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1577            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1578        ]
1579
1580    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1581        return [
1582            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1583            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1584            if expression.args.get("windows")
1585            else "",
1586        ]
1587
1588    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1589        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1590        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1591        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1592
1593    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1594        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1595        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1596        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1598        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1599
1600        if kind:
1601            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1602                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1603            else:
1604                if kind == "STRUCT":
1605                    expressions = self.expressions(
1606                        sqls=[
1607                            self.sql(
1608                                exp.Struct(
1609                                    expressions=[
1610                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1611                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1612                                        )
1613                                        for e in expression.expressions
1614                                    ]
1615                                )
1616                            )
1617                        ]
1618                    )
1619                kind = ""
1620
1621        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1622        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1623            expression,
1624            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1625            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1626            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1627        )
1628        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1629
1630    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1632        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1633        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1634        return f"{this}{sql}"
1635
1636    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1637        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1638
1639    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1640        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1641        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1642        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1643        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1644        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1645
1646    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1648        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1649        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1650
1651    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1653        kind = expression.text("kind")
1654        if kind:
1655            kind = f"{kind}."
1656        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1657
1658    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1659        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1660
1661    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1664
1665        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1666        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1667
1668        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1669        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1670
1671    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1672        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1673        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1674
1675    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1676        return self.prepend_ctes(
1677            expression,
1678            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1679        )
1680
1681    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1682        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1683        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1684        return f"UNION{kind}"
1685
1686    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1687        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1688        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1689        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1690            columns = alias.columns
1691            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1692        else:
1693            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1694        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1695        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1696        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1697        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1698        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1699
1700    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1701        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1702        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1703
1704    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1707        order = expression.args.get("order")
1708        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1709        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1710        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1711        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1712
1713        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1714
1715        first = expression.args.get("first")
1716        if first is None:
1717            first = ""
1718        else:
1719            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1720
1721        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1722            return f"{this} {alias}"
1723
1724        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1725        return f"{this} ({args})"
1726
1727    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1728        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1729        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1730
1731    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1733        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1734        end = (
1735            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1736            or "CURRENT ROW"
1737        )
1738        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1739
1740    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1743        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1744
1745    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1748        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1749        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1750
1751    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1752        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1753        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1754
1755        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1756
1757    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1758        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1759
1760    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1761        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1762
1763    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1766            this = self.wrap(this)
1767        return f"ANY {this}"
1768
1769    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1770        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1771
1772    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1775
1776        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1777            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1778            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1779
1780        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1781
1782        if default:
1783            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1784
1785        statements.append("END")
1786
1787        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1788            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1789
1790        return " ".join(statements)
1791
1792    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1794        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1795        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1796
1797    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1798        order = expression.args.get("order")
1799        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1800        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1801
1802    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1805        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1806
1807    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1808        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1809
1810        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1811            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1812        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1813            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1814        else:
1815            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1816
1817    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1818        expressions = expression.expressions
1819        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1820            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1821        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1822
1823    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1825        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1826
1827    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1830        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1831        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1832        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1833        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1834        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1835        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1836
1837    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1841        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1842
1843    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1844        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1845
1846    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1847        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1848        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1849        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1850
1851    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1853
1854    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1857        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1858        if unique_keys is not None:
1859            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1860        else:
1861            unique_keys = ""
1862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1864        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1865        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1866        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1867        return self.func(
1868            "JSON_OBJECT",
1869            *expression.expressions,
1870            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1871        )
1872
1873    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1876        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1877        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1878        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1879        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1880
1881    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1884        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1885        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1886        with_ = (
1887            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1888            if expressions
1889            else ""
1890        )
1891        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1892
1893    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1894        query = expression.args.get("query")
1895        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1896        field = expression.args.get("field")
1897        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1898
1899        if query:
1900            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1901        elif unnest:
1902            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1903        elif field:
1904            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1905        else:
1906            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1907
1908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1909
1910    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1911        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1912
1913    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1914        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1915        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1916            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1917        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1918
1919        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1920            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1921            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1922
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1924        if this:
1925            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1926            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1927
1928        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1929
1930    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1931        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1932
1933    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1937        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1938        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1939        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1940
1941    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1942        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1943
1944    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1945        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1946            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1947        else:
1948            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1949            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1950
1951        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1952
1953    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1954        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1955        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1956        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1957        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1958
1959    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1960        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1961
1962    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1963        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1964        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1966
1967    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1968        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1969
1970    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1973        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1974
1975    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1976        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1977
1978    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1979        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1980
1981    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1982        if not self.pretty:
1983            return self.binary(expression, op)
1984
1985        sqls = tuple(
1986            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1987            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1988        )
1989
1990        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1991        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1992
1993    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1994        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1995
1996    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1997        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1998
1999    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2000        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2001
2002    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2003        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2004
2005    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2007
2008    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2009        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2010
2011    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2012        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2013        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2014        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2015
2016    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2017        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2019
2020    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2021        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2022
2023    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2025
2026    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2028        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2029        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2030        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2031        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2032
2033    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2036        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2037        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2038        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2039        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2040        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2041        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2042        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2043
2044    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2045        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2046        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2047        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2048        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2049
2050        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2051            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2052
2053        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2054
2055    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2056        return "BEGIN"
2057
2058    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2059        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2060        if chain is not None:
2061            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2062
2063        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2064
2065    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2066        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2067        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2068        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2069
2070    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072
2073        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2074        if dtype:
2075            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2076            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2077            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2078            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2079            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2080
2081        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2082        if default:
2083            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2084
2085        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2086            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2087
2088        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2089
2090    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2091        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2092            # Remove db from tables
2093            expression = expression.transform(
2094                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2095            )
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2098
2099    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2100        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2101
2102        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2106        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2108        else:
2109            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2110
2111        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2112        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2113
2114    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2115        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2116        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2117        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2118
2119    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2122        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2123
2124        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2125        if enforced is not None:
2126            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2127
2128        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2129
2130    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2131        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2132        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2133
2134        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2135        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2136        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2137
2138    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2139        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2140
2141    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2143
2144    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2145        return self.sql(
2146            exp.Cast(
2147                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2148                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2149            )
2150        )
2151
2152    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2154
2155    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2156        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2157            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2158        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2159
2160    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2162
2163    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2165
2166    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2168
2169    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2170        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2171
2172    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2173        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2174
2175    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2176        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2177
2178    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2180
2181    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2183
2184    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2185        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2186
2187    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2188        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2189
2190    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2192
2193    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2194        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2195            return self.sql(
2196                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2197            )
2198        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2199
2200    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2201        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2202
2203    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2204        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2205
2206    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2207        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2208
2209    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2210        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2211
2212    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2213        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2214
2215    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2217
2218    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2220
2221    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2223
2224    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2225        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2226
2227    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2228        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2229
2230    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2231        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2232
2233    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2234        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2235
2236    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2237        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2238
2239    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2240        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2241
2242    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2243        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2244        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2247        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2248
2249    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2250        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2251        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2252
2253    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2254        args = []
2255        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2256            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2257                for value in arg_value:
2258                    args.append(value)
2259            else:
2260                args.append(arg_value)
2261
2262        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2263
2264    def func(
2265        self,
2266        name: str,
2267        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2268        prefix: str = "(",
2269        suffix: str = ")",
2270    ) -> str:
2271        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2272
2273    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2274        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2275        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2276            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2277        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2278
2279    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2280        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2281
2282    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2283        return format_time(
2284            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2285        )
2286
2287    def expressions(
2288        self,
2289        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2290        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2291        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2292        flat: bool = False,
2293        indent: bool = True,
2294        sep: str = ", ",
2295        prefix: str = "",
2296    ) -> str:
2297        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2298
2299        if not expressions:
2300            return ""
2301
2302        if flat:
2303            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2304
2305        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2306
2307        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2308        pad = " " * self.pad
2309        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2310
2311        result_sqls = []
2312        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2313            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2314            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2315
2316            if self.pretty:
2317                if self.leading_comma:
2318                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2319                else:
2320                    result_sqls.append(
2321                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2322                    )
2323            else:
2324                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2325
2326        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2327        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2328
2329    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2330        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2331        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2332        if flat:
2333            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2334        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2335
2336    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2337        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2338        if not property_name:
2339            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2340        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2341
2342    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2344        op = self.seg(op)
2345        return self.query_modifiers(
2346            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2347        )
2348
2349    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2350        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2351
2352    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2353        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2354
2355    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2357        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2358        expressions = (
2359            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2360        )
2361        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2362
2363    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2366        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2367
2368    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2370
2371    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2372        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2373        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2374        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2375        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2376
2377        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2378        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2379            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2380            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2381                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2382        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2383            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2384                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2385            else:
2386                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2387        else:
2388            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2389        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2390
2391    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2393        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2394        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2395        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2396
2397    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2398        if expression.args.get("format"):
2399            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2400
2401        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2402
2403    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2406        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2407        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2408        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2409
2410    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2413        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2414        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2415
2416    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2417        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2418
2419    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2420        return ""
2421
2422    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2423        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2424        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2425        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2426        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2427        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2428
2429    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2432
2433        if having:
2434            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2435
2436        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
310    def __init__(
311        self,
312        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
313        identify: str | bool = False,
314        normalize: bool = False,
315        pad: int = 2,
316        indent: int = 2,
317        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
318        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
319        max_unsupported: int = 3,
320        leading_comma: bool = False,
321        max_text_width: int = 80,
322        comments: bool = True,
323    ):
324        import sqlglot
325
326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
327        self.identify = identify
328        self.normalize = normalize
329        self.pad = pad
330        self._indent = indent
331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
333        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
334        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
335        self.comments = comments
336
337        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
338        self.normalize_functions = (
339            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
340        )
341
342        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
343        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
344        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
345        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
246    @classmethod
247    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
248        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
249
250        Args:
251            text: The text to check.
252            identify:
253                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
254                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
255
256        Returns:
257            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
258        """
259        if identify is True or identify == "always":
260            return True
261
262        if identify == "safe":
263            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
264
265        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
347    def generate(
348        self,
349        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
350        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
351    ) -> str:
352        """
353        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
354
355        Args:
356            expression: The syntax tree.
357            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
358                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
359
360        Returns:
361            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
362        """
363        if cache is not None:
364            self._cache = cache
365
366        self.unsupported_messages = []
367        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
368        self._cache = None
369
370        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
371            return sql
372
373        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
374            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
375                logger.warning(msg)
376        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
377            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
378
379        if self.pretty:
380            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
381        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
383    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
385            raise UnsupportedError(message)
386        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
388    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
389        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
391    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
392        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
394    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
395        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
396        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
397        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
399    def maybe_comment(
400        self,
401        sql: str,
402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
403        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
404    ) -> str:
405        comments = (
406            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
407            if self.comments
408            else None
409        )
410
411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
412            return sql
413
414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
415        comments_sql = sep.join(
416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
417        )
418
419        if not comments_sql:
420            return sql
421
422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
423            return (
424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
425                if sql[0].isspace()
426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
427            )
428
429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
432        this_sql = self.indent(
433            self.sql(expression)
434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
436            level=1,
437            pad=0,
438        )
439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
442        original = self.identify
443        self.identify = False
444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
445        self.identify = original
446        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
450            return name.upper()
451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
452            return name.lower()
453        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
455    def indent(
456        self,
457        sql: str,
458        level: int = 0,
459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
460        skip_first: bool = False,
461        skip_last: bool = False,
462    ) -> str:
463        if not self.pretty:
464            return sql
465
466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
467        lines = sql.split("\n")
468
469        return "\n".join(
470            line
471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
474        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
476    def sql(
477        self,
478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
480        comment: bool = True,
481    ) -> str:
482        if not expression:
483            return ""
484
485        if isinstance(expression, str):
486            return expression
487
488        if key:
489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
490
491        if self._cache is not None:
492            expression_id = hash(expression)
493
494            if expression_id in self._cache:
495                return self._cache[expression_id]
496
497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
498
499        if callable(transform):
500            sql = transform(self, expression)
501        elif transform:
502            sql = transform
503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
505
506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
512            else:
513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
514        else:
515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
516
517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
518
519        if self._cache is not None:
520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
521        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
531        options = expression.args.get("options")
532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
545        return ".".join(
546            self.sql(part)
547            for part in (
548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
549                expression.args.get("db"),
550                expression.args.get("table"),
551                expression.args.get("this"),
552            )
553            if part
554        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
560        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
571
572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
585        else:
586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
587
588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
592    ) -> str:
593        this = ""
594        if expression.this is not None:
595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
597
598        start = expression.args.get("start")
599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
607        cycle_sql = ""
608
609        if cycle is not None:
610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
612
613        sequence_opts = ""
614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
617
618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
620
621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
628        if desc is not None:
629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
637    def createable_sql(
638        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
639    ) -> str:
640        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
642    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
644        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
645        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
646
647        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
648
649        properties_sql = ""
650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
652        ):
653            properties_sql = self.sql(
654                exp.Properties(
655                    expressions=[
656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
658                    ]
659                )
660            )
661
662        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
663        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
664        if expression_sql:
665            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
666
667            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
668                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
669                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
670                        exp.Properties(
671                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
672                        ),
673                        wrapped=False,
674                    )
675                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
676                else:
677                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
678
679        postindex_props_sql = ""
680        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
681            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
682                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
683                wrapped=False,
684                prefix=" ",
685            )
686
687        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
688        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
689        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
690
691        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
692        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
693
694        postcreate_props_sql = ""
695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
696            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
698                sep=" ",
699                prefix=" ",
700                wrapped=False,
701            )
702
703        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
704
705        postexpression_props_sql = ""
706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
707            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
708                exp.Properties(
709                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
710                ),
711                sep=" ",
712                prefix=" ",
713                wrapped=False,
714            )
715
716        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
717        no_schema_binding = (
718            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
719        )
720
721        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
722        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
723
724        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
725        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
727    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
729        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
730
731        if when:
732            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
733            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
734            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
735
736        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
738    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
739        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
741    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
742        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
743        if with_:
744            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
745        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
747    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
748        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
749        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
750
751        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
753    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
754        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
755        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
757    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
758        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
759        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
760        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
761        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
763    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
765        if self.BIT_START:
766            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
767        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
769    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
771        if self.HEX_START:
772            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
773        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
775    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
777        if self.BYTE_START:
778            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
779        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
781    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
782        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
783        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
785    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
787        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
788        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
789        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
791    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
792        type_value = expression.this
793        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
794        nested = ""
795        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
796        values = ""
797        if interior:
798            if expression.args.get("nested"):
799                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
800                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
801                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
802                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
803                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
804            else:
805                nested = f"({interior})"
806
807        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
809    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
810        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
811        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
812        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
813        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
815    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
817        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
818        using_sql = (
819            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
820            if expression.args.get("using")
821            else ""
822        )
823        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
824        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
825        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
826        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
827        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
829    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
831        kind = expression.args["kind"]
832        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
833        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
834        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
835        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
836        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
837        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
838        return (
839            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
840        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
842    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
843        return self.prepend_ctes(
844            expression,
845            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
846        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
848    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
849        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
851    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
852        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
853        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
854        count = expression.args.get("count")
855        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
856        if expression.args.get("percent"):
857            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
858        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
859        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
861    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
863        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
864        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
866    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
867        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
868            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
869        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
871    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
872        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
873        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
874        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
875        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
876        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
877        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
878        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
879        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
880        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
881        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
882        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
883        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
884        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
885        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
887    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
888        text = expression.name
889        lower = text.lower()
890        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
891        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
892        if (
893            expression.quoted
894            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
895            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
896            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
897        ):
898            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
899        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
901    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
902        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
903        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
904        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
905        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
906        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
908    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
909        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
910        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
912    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
913        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
915    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
916        root_properties = []
917        with_properties = []
918
919        for p in expression.expressions:
920            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
921            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
922                with_properties.append(p)
923            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
924                root_properties.append(p)
925
926        return self.root_properties(
927            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
928        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
930    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
931        if properties.expressions:
932            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
933        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
935    def properties(
936        self,
937        properties: exp.Properties,
938        prefix: str = "",
939        sep: str = ", ",
940        suffix: str = "",
941        wrapped: bool = True,
942    ) -> str:
943        if properties.expressions:
944            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
945            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
946            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
947        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
949    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
950        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
952    def locate_properties(
953        self, properties: exp.Properties
954    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
955        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
956            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
957        }
958
959        for p in properties.expressions:
960            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
961            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
976                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
977
978        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
980    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
981        property_cls = expression.__class__
982        if property_cls == exp.Property:
983            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
984
985        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
986        if not property_name:
987            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
988
989        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
991    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
992        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
993        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
994        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
996    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
997        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
998        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
999        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1001    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1002        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1003        local = expression.args.get("local")
1004        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1005        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1006        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1007        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1008        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1010    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1011        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1012        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1013        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1015    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1016        if expression.args.get("default"):
1017            property = "DEFAULT"
1018        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1019            property = "ON"
1020        else:
1021            property = "OFF"
1022        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1024    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1025        if expression.args.get("no"):
1026            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027        if expression.args.get("default"):
1028            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1029
1030        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1031        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1033    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1034        default = expression.args.get("default")
1035        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1036        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1037        if default or minimum or maximum:
1038            if default:
1039                prop = "DEFAULT"
1040            elif minimum:
1041                prop = "MINIMUM"
1042            else:
1043                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1044            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1045        units = expression.args.get("units")
1046        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1047        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1049    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1050        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1051        always = expression.args.get("always")
1052        default = expression.args.get("default")
1053        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1054        never = expression.args.get("never")
1055
1056        if autotemp is not None:
1057            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1058        elif always:
1059            prop = "ALWAYS"
1060        elif default:
1061            prop = "DEFAULT"
1062        elif manual:
1063            prop = "MANUAL"
1064        elif never:
1065            prop = "NEVER"
1066        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1068    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1069        no = expression.args.get("no")
1070        no = " NO" if no else ""
1071        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1072        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1073
1074        for_ = ""
1075        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1076            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1078            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1079        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1080            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1081        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1083    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1084        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1085        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1086        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1087        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1088        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1089        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1091    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1092        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1093        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1094        statistics_sql = ""
1095        if statistics is not None:
1096            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1097        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1099    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1100        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1101
1102        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1103            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1104        else:
1105            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1106
1107        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1108        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1109        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1110
1111        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1112        partition_sql = (
1113            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1114        )
1115        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1116        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1117        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1118        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1119        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1120        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1123    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(
1125            expression,
1126            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1127        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1129    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1130        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1132    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1135    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1136        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1138    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1139        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1140        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1141        if constraint:
1142            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1143        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1144        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1145        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1147        if expressions:
1148            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1149        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1151    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1152        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1154    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1155        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1156        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1157        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1158        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1159        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1160        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1161        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1162        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1163        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1164        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1165        null = expression.args.get("null")
1166        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1167        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1169    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1170        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1172    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1173        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1174        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1175        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1176        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1178    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1179        table = ".".join(
1180            part
1181            for part in [
1182                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1183                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1184                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1185            ]
1186            if part
1187        )
1188
1189        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1190        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1191        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1192        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1193        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1194        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1195        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1196        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1197        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1198        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1199
1200        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1202    def tablesample_sql(
1203        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1204    ) -> str:
1205        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1206            table = expression.this.copy()
1207            table.set("alias", None)
1208            this = self.sql(table)
1209            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1210        else:
1211            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212            alias = ""
1213        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1214        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1215        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1216        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1217        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1218        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1219        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1220        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1221        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1222        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1223        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1224        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1225        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1226            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1227        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1228        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1229        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1230        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1232    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1233        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1234
1235        if expression.this:
1236            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1237            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1238            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1239            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1240            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1241            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1242
1243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1244        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1245        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1246        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1247        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1248        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1250    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1251        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1253    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1256        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1257        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1258        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1259        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1260        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1261        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1263    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1264        args = self.expressions(expression)
1265        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1266        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1267        values = (
1268            f"({values})"
1269            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1270            else values
1271        )
1272        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1274    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1275        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1277    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1278        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1279        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1280        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1282    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1283        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1285    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1286        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1287
1288        if expression.args.get("all"):
1289            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1290
1291        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1292        grouping_sets = (
1293            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1294        )
1295
1296        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1297        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1298            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1299        else:
1300            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1301            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1302
1303        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1304        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1305            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1306        else:
1307            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1308            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1309
1310        groupings = csv(
1311            grouping_sets,
1312            cube_sql,
1313            rollup_sql,
1314            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1315            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1316        )
1317
1318        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1319            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1320
1321        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1323    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1324        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1325        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1327    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1328        op_sql = " ".join(
1329            op
1330            for op in (
1331                expression.method,
1332                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1333                expression.side,
1334                expression.kind,
1335                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1336            )
1337            if op
1338        )
1339        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1340        using = expression.args.get("using")
1341
1342        if not on_sql and using:
1343            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1344
1345        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346
1347        if on_sql:
1348            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1349            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1350            if using:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1352            else:
1353                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1354        elif not op_sql:
1355            return f", {this_sql}"
1356
1357        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1358        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1360    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1361        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1363        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1365    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367
1368        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1369            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1370
1371        if expression.args.get("view"):
1372            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1373            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1374            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1375            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1376            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1377            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1378
1379        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1380        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1381        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1383    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        args = ", ".join(
1386            sql
1387            for sql in (
1388                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1389                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1390            )
1391            if sql
1392        )
1393        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1395    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1399    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1401        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1404        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1405        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1406        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1407        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1409    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1410        expressions = (
1411            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1412        )
1413        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1414        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1416    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1417        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1419    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1420        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1421            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1422            return ""
1423
1424        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1426        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1427        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1428
1429        if wait is not None:
1430            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1431                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1432            else:
1433                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1434
1435        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1437    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1438        text = expression.this or ""
1439        if expression.is_string:
1440            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1441        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1444        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1445        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1446            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1447        elif self.pretty:
1448            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1449        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1451    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1452        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1453        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1454        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1455        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1456        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1457        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1458        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1459        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1460        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1461        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1462        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1464    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1465        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1467    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1468        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1470    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1473        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1475    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1476        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1478    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1479        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1481    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1482        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1484    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1485        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1486        asc = not desc
1487
1488        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1489        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1490        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1491        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1492        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1493
1494        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1495        nulls_sort_change = ""
1496        if nulls_first and (
1497            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1498        ):
1499            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1500        elif (
1501            nulls_last
1502            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1503            and not nulls_are_last
1504        ):
1505            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1506
1507        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1508            self.unsupported(
1509                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1510            )
1511            nulls_sort_change = ""
1512
1513        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1515    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1516        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1517        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1518        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1519        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1520        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1521        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1522        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1523        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1524        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1525        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1526        definition_sqls = [
1527            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1528            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1529        ]
1530        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1531        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1532        body = "".join(
1533            (
1534                partition,
1535                order,
1536                measures,
1537                rows,
1538                after,
1539                pattern,
1540                define,
1541            )
1542        )
1543        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1544        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1545        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1547    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1548        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1549
1550        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1551            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1552        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1553            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1554
1555        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1556
1557        return csv(
1558            *sqls,
1559            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1560            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1561            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1562            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1563            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1564            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1565            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1566            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1567            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1568            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1569            sep="",
1570        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1572    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1573        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1574    ) -> t.List[str]:
1575        return [
1576            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1577            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1578        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1580    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1581        return [
1582            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1583            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1584            if expression.args.get("windows")
1585            else "",
1586        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1588    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1589        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1590        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1591        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1593    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1594        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1595        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1596        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1598        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1599
1600        if kind:
1601            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1602                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1603            else:
1604                if kind == "STRUCT":
1605                    expressions = self.expressions(
1606                        sqls=[
1607                            self.sql(
1608                                exp.Struct(
1609                                    expressions=[
1610                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1611                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1612                                        )
1613                                        for e in expression.expressions
1614                                    ]
1615                                )
1616                            )
1617                        ]
1618                    )
1619                kind = ""
1620
1621        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1622        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1623            expression,
1624            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1625            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1626            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1627        )
1628        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1630    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1632        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1633        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1634        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1636    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1637        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1639    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1640        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1641        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1642        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1643        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1644        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1646    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1648        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1649        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1651    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1653        kind = expression.text("kind")
1654        if kind:
1655            kind = f"{kind}."
1656        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1658    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1659        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1661    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1664
1665        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1666        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1667
1668        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1669        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1671    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1672        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1673        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1675    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1676        return self.prepend_ctes(
1677            expression,
1678            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1679        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1681    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1682        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1683        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1684        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1686    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1687        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1688        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1689        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1690            columns = alias.columns
1691            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1692        else:
1693            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1694        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1695        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1696        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1697        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1698        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1700    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1701        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1702        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1704    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1707        order = expression.args.get("order")
1708        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1709        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1710        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1711        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1712
1713        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1714
1715        first = expression.args.get("first")
1716        if first is None:
1717            first = ""
1718        else:
1719            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1720
1721        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1722            return f"{this} {alias}"
1723
1724        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1725        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1727    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1728        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1729        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1731    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1733        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1734        end = (
1735            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1736            or "CURRENT ROW"
1737        )
1738        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1740    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1743        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1745    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1748        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1749        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1751    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1752        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1753        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1754
1755        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1757    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1758        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1760    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1761        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1763    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1766            this = self.wrap(this)
1767        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1769    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1770        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1772    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1775
1776        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1777            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1778            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1779
1780        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1781
1782        if default:
1783            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1784
1785        statements.append("END")
1786
1787        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1788            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1789
1790        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1792    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1794        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1795        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1797    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1798        order = expression.args.get("order")
1799        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1800        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1802    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1805        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1807    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1808        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1809
1810        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1811            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1812        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1813            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1814        else:
1815            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1817    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1818        expressions = expression.expressions
1819        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1820            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1821        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1823    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1825        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1827    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1830        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1831        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1832        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1833        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1834        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1835        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1837    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1841        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1843    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1844        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1846    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1847        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1848        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1849        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1851    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1854    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1857        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1858        if unique_keys is not None:
1859            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1860        else:
1861            unique_keys = ""
1862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1864        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1865        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1866        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1867        return self.func(
1868            "JSON_OBJECT",
1869            *expression.expressions,
1870            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1871        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1873    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1876        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1877        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1878        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1879        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1881    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1884        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1885        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1886        with_ = (
1887            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1888            if expressions
1889            else ""
1890        )
1891        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1893    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1894        query = expression.args.get("query")
1895        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1896        field = expression.args.get("field")
1897        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1898
1899        if query:
1900            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1901        elif unnest:
1902            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1903        elif field:
1904            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1905        else:
1906            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1907
1908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1910    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1911        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1913    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1914        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1915        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1916            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1917        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1918
1919        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1920            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1921            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1922
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1924        if this:
1925            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1926            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1927
1928        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1930    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1931        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1933    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1937        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1938        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1939        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1941    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1942        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1944    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1945        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1946            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1947        else:
1948            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1949            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1950
1951        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1953    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1954        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1955        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1956        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1957        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1959    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1960        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1962    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1963        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1964        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1967    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1968        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1970    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1973        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1975    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1976        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1978    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1979        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1981    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1982        if not self.pretty:
1983            return self.binary(expression, op)
1984
1985        sqls = tuple(
1986            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1987            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1988        )
1989
1990        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1991        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1993    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1994        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1996    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1997        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1999    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2000        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2002    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2003        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2005    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2008    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2009        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2011    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2012        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2013        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2014        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2016    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2017        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2020    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2021        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2023    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2026    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2028        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2029        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2030        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2031        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2033    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2036        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2037        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2038        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2039        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2040        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2041        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2042        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2044    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2045        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2046        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2047        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2048        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2049
2050        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2051            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2052
2053        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2055    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2056        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2058    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2059        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2060        if chain is not None:
2061            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2062
2063        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2065    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2066        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2067        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2068        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2070    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072
2073        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2074        if dtype:
2075            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2076            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2077            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2078            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2079            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2080
2081        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2082        if default:
2083            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2084
2085        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2086            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2087
2088        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2090    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2091        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2092            # Remove db from tables
2093            expression = expression.transform(
2094                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2095            )
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2099    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2100        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2101
2102        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2106        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2108        else:
2109            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2110
2111        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2112        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2114    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2115        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2116        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2117        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2119    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2122        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2123
2124        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2125        if enforced is not None:
2126            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2127
2128        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2130    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2131        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2132        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2133
2134        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2135        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2136        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2138    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2139        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2141    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2144    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2145        return self.sql(
2146            exp.Cast(
2147                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2148                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2149            )
2150        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2152    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2155    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2156        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2157            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2158        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2160    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2163    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2166    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2169    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2170        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2172    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2173        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2175    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2176        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2178    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2181    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2184    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2185        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2187    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2188        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2190    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2193    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2194        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2195            return self.sql(
2196                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2197            )
2198        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2200    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2201        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2203    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2204        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2206    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2207        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2209    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2210        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2212    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2213        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2215    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2218    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2221    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2224    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2225        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2227    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2228        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2230    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2231        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2233    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2234        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2236    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2237        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2239    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2240        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2242    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2243        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2244        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2247        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2249    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2250        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2251        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2253    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2254        args = []
2255        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2256            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2257                for value in arg_value:
2258                    args.append(value)
2259            else:
2260                args.append(arg_value)
2261
2262        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2264    def func(
2265        self,
2266        name: str,
2267        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2268        prefix: str = "(",
2269        suffix: str = ")",
2270    ) -> str:
2271        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2273    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2274        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2275        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2276            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2277        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2279    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2280        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2282    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2283        return format_time(
2284            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2285        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2287    def expressions(
2288        self,
2289        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2290        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2291        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2292        flat: bool = False,
2293        indent: bool = True,
2294        sep: str = ", ",
2295        prefix: str = "",
2296    ) -> str:
2297        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2298
2299        if not expressions:
2300            return ""
2301
2302        if flat:
2303            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2304
2305        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2306
2307        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2308        pad = " " * self.pad
2309        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2310
2311        result_sqls = []
2312        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2313            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2314            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2315
2316            if self.pretty:
2317                if self.leading_comma:
2318                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2319                else:
2320                    result_sqls.append(
2321                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2322                    )
2323            else:
2324                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2325
2326        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2327        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2329    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2330        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2331        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2332        if flat:
2333            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2334        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2336    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2337        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2338        if not property_name:
2339            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2340        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2342    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2344        op = self.seg(op)
2345        return self.query_modifiers(
2346            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2347        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2349    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2350        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2352    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2353        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2355    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2357        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2358        expressions = (
2359            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2360        )
2361        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2363    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2366        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2368    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2371    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2372        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2373        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2374        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2375        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2376
2377        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2378        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2379            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2380            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2381                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2382        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2383            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2384                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2385            else:
2386                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2387        else:
2388            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2389        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2391    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2393        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2394        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2395        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2397    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2398        if expression.args.get("format"):
2399            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2400
2401        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2403    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2406        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2407        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2408        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2410    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2413        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2414        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2416    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2417        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2419    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2420        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2422    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2423        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2424        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2425        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2426        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2427        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2429    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2432
2433        if having:
2434            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2435
2436        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2439def cached_generator(
2440    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2441) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2442    """Returns a cached generator."""
2443    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2444    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2445    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.