Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.time import format_time
  13from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  14
  15if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  16    from sqlglot._typing import E
  17    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  18
  19logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  20
  21ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  22
  23
  24class Generator:
  25    """
  26    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  27
  28    Args:
  29        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  30            Default: False.
  31        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  32            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  33            True or 'always': Always quote.
  34            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  35        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  36            Default: False.
  37        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  40            Default: 2.
  41        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  42            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  43            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  44            False: Disables function name normalization.
  45        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  46            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  48            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  49            Default: 3
  50        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  51            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  52            Default: False
  53        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  54            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  55            line length.
  56            Default: 80
  57        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  58            Default: True
  59    """
  60
  61    TRANSFORMS = {
  62        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  73        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  80        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  83        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  86        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  87        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  88        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  90        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  91        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  99        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 100        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 101        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 102        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 103        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 104        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 105        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 106        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 108        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 109        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 110        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 111    }
 112
 113    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 114    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 117    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 118
 119    # Always do union distinct or union all
 120    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 121
 122    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 123    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 126    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 129    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 132    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 135    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 136
 137    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 138    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 141    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 142
 143    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 144    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 145
 146    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 147    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 148
 149    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 150    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 151
 152    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 153    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 154
 155    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 156    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 157
 158    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 159    JOIN_HINTS = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 162    TABLE_HINTS = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 165    QUERY_HINTS = True
 166
 167    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 168    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 169
 170    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 171    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 174    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 177    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 180    RETURNING_END = True
 181
 182    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 183    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 184
 185    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 186    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 187
 188    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 189    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 190
 191    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 192    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 193
 194    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 195    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 196
 197    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 198    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 199    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 200    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 201
 202    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 203    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 204
 205    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 206    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 209    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 212    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 215    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 218    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 219
 220    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 221    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 222
 223    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 224    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 225
 226    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 227    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 228
 229    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 230    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 231
 232    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 233    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 234
 235    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 236    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 237
 238    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 239        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 248    }
 249
 250    STAR_MAPPING = {
 251        "except": "EXCEPT",
 252        "replace": "REPLACE",
 253    }
 254
 255    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 256        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 257        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 258        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 259        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 260        "DAYS": "DAY",
 261        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 262        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 263        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 264        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 265    }
 266
 267    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 268
 269    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 270
 271    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 272
 273    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 274        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 285        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 286        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 293        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 295        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 296        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 297        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 299        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 304        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 306        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 307        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 308        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 310        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 313        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 316        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 327        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 331        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 333        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 337        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 338        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339    }
 340
 341    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 342    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 343
 344    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 345    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 346        exp.Create,
 347        exp.Delete,
 348        exp.Drop,
 349        exp.From,
 350        exp.Insert,
 351        exp.Join,
 352        exp.Select,
 353        exp.Update,
 354        exp.Where,
 355        exp.With,
 356    )
 357
 358    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 359    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 360        exp.Binary,
 361        exp.Union,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 365    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 366        exp.Column,
 367        exp.Literal,
 368        exp.Neg,
 369        exp.Paren,
 370    )
 371
 372    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 373    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 374
 375    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 376
 377    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 378
 379    __slots__ = (
 380        "pretty",
 381        "identify",
 382        "normalize",
 383        "pad",
 384        "_indent",
 385        "normalize_functions",
 386        "unsupported_level",
 387        "max_unsupported",
 388        "leading_comma",
 389        "max_text_width",
 390        "comments",
 391        "dialect",
 392        "unsupported_messages",
 393        "_escaped_quote_end",
 394        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 395    )
 396
 397    def __init__(
 398        self,
 399        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 400        identify: str | bool = False,
 401        normalize: bool = False,
 402        pad: int = 2,
 403        indent: int = 2,
 404        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 405        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 406        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 407        leading_comma: bool = False,
 408        max_text_width: int = 80,
 409        comments: bool = True,
 410        dialect: DialectType = None,
 411    ):
 412        import sqlglot
 413        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 414
 415        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 416        self.identify = identify
 417        self.normalize = normalize
 418        self.pad = pad
 419        self._indent = indent
 420        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 421        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 422        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 423        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 424        self.comments = comments
 425        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 426
 427        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 428        self.normalize_functions = (
 429            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 430        )
 431
 432        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 433        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 434            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 435        )
 436        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 437            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 438        )
 439
 440    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 441        """
 442        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 443
 444        Args:
 445            expression: The syntax tree.
 446            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 447                it is safer to copy.
 448
 449        Returns:
 450            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 451        """
 452        if copy:
 453            expression = expression.copy()
 454
 455        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 456
 457        self.unsupported_messages = []
 458        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 459
 460        if self.pretty:
 461            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 462
 463        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 467            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 468                logger.warning(msg)
 469        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 470            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 471
 472        return sql
 473
 474    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 475        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 476        if (
 477            not expression.parent
 478            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 479            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 480        ):
 481            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 482
 483            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 484
 485        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 486            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 487
 488            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 489
 490        return expression
 491
 492    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 494            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 495        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 496
 497    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 498        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 499
 500    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 501        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 502
 503    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 504        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 505        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 506        return comment
 507
 508    def maybe_comment(
 509        self,
 510        sql: str,
 511        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 512        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 513    ) -> str:
 514        comments = (
 515            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 516            if self.comments
 517            else None
 518        )
 519
 520        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 521            return sql
 522
 523        comments_sql = " ".join(
 524            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 525        )
 526
 527        if not comments_sql:
 528            return sql
 529
 530        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 531            return (
 532                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 533                if sql[0].isspace()
 534                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 535            )
 536
 537        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 538
 539    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 540        this_sql = self.indent(
 541            self.sql(expression)
 542            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 543            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 544            level=1,
 545            pad=0,
 546        )
 547        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 548
 549    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 550        original = self.identify
 551        self.identify = False
 552        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 553        self.identify = original
 554        return result
 555
 556    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 557        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 558            return name.upper()
 559        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 560            return name.lower()
 561        return name
 562
 563    def indent(
 564        self,
 565        sql: str,
 566        level: int = 0,
 567        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 568        skip_first: bool = False,
 569        skip_last: bool = False,
 570    ) -> str:
 571        if not self.pretty:
 572            return sql
 573
 574        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 575        lines = sql.split("\n")
 576
 577        return "\n".join(
 578            line
 579            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 580            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 581            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 582        )
 583
 584    def sql(
 585        self,
 586        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 587        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 588        comment: bool = True,
 589    ) -> str:
 590        if not expression:
 591            return ""
 592
 593        if isinstance(expression, str):
 594            return expression
 595
 596        if key:
 597            value = expression.args.get(key)
 598            if value:
 599                return self.sql(value)
 600            return ""
 601
 602        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 603
 604        if callable(transform):
 605            sql = transform(self, expression)
 606        elif transform:
 607            sql = transform
 608        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 609            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 610
 611            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 612                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 613            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 614                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 615            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 616                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 617            else:
 618                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 619        else:
 620            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 621
 622        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 623
 624    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 625        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 626        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 627        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 628
 629    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 630        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 631        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 632        options = expression.args.get("options")
 633        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 634        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 635        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 636        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 637        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 638
 639    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 640        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 641            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 642        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 643        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 644
 645    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 646        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 647
 648        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 649            join_mark = ""
 650            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 651
 652        column = ".".join(
 653            self.sql(part)
 654            for part in (
 655                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 656                expression.args.get("db"),
 657                expression.args.get("table"),
 658                expression.args.get("this"),
 659            )
 660            if part
 661        )
 662
 663        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 664
 665    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 667        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 668        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 669        return f"{position}{this}"
 670
 671    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 672        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 673        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 674        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 675        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 676        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 677        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 678        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 679        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 680
 681        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 682            kind = ""
 683
 684        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 685
 686    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 688        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 689        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 690
 691    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 693        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 694            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 695        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 696            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 697        else:
 698            persisted = ""
 699        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 700
 701    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 702        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 703
 704    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 705        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 706            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 707        else:
 708            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 709
 710        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 711
 712    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 713        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 714    ) -> str:
 715        this = ""
 716        if expression.this is not None:
 717            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 718            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 719
 720        start = expression.args.get("start")
 721        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 722        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 723        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 724        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 725        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 726        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 727        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 728        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 729        cycle_sql = ""
 730
 731        if cycle is not None:
 732            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 733            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 734
 735        sequence_opts = ""
 736        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 737            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 738            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 739
 740        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 741        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 742
 743        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 744
 745    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 746        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 747    ) -> str:
 748        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 749        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 750        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 751
 752    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 753        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 754    ) -> str:
 755        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 756
 757    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 758        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 759
 760    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 761        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 762
 763    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 764        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 765        if desc is not None:
 766            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 767        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 768
 769    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 772        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 773        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 774        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 775
 776    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 777        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 778
 779    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 780        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 781        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 782        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 783
 784        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 785
 786        properties_sql = ""
 787        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 788            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 789        ):
 790            properties_sql = self.sql(
 791                exp.Properties(
 792                    expressions=[
 793                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 794                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 795                    ]
 796                )
 797            )
 798
 799        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 800        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 801
 802        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 803        if expression_sql:
 804            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 805
 806            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 807                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 808                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 809                        exp.Properties(
 810                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 811                        ),
 812                        wrapped=False,
 813                    )
 814                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 815                else:
 816                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 817
 818        postindex_props_sql = ""
 819        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 820            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 821                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 822                wrapped=False,
 823                prefix=" ",
 824            )
 825
 826        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 827        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 828        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 829
 830        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 831        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 832
 833        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 834        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 835            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 836                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 837                sep=" ",
 838                prefix=" ",
 839                wrapped=False,
 840            )
 841
 842        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 843
 844        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 845        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 846            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 847                exp.Properties(
 848                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 849                ),
 850                sep=" ",
 851                prefix=" ",
 852                wrapped=False,
 853            )
 854
 855        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 856        no_schema_binding = (
 857            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 858        )
 859
 860        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 861        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 862
 863        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 864        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 865
 866    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 869        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 870        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 871
 872    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 873        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 874
 875    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 876        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 877        if with_:
 878            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 879        return sql
 880
 881    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 882        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 883        recursive = (
 884            "RECURSIVE "
 885            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 886            else ""
 887        )
 888
 889        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 890
 891    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 892        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 893        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 894
 895    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 896        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 898        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 899
 900        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 901            alias = "_t"
 902
 903        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 904
 905    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 908            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 909        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 910
 911    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 913        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 914            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 915        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 916
 917    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 920            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 921        return this
 922
 923    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 925        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 926
 927        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 928            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 929            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 930
 931        if escape:
 932            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 933        else:
 934            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 935
 936        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 937        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 938
 939    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 940        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 941        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 942
 943    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 947        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 948
 949    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 950        type_value = expression.this
 951
 952        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 953            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 954        else:
 955            type_sql = (
 956                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 957                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 958                else type_value
 959            )
 960
 961        nested = ""
 962        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 963        values = ""
 964
 965        if interior:
 966            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 967                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 968                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 969                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 970                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 971                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 972            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 973                nested = f" {interior}"
 974            else:
 975                nested = f"({interior})"
 976
 977        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 978        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 979            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 981        ):
 982            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 983
 984        return type_sql
 985
 986    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 987        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 988        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 989        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 990        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 991
 992    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 994        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 995        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 996        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 997        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 998        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 999        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1000        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1001        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1002        if self.RETURNING_END:
1003            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1004        else:
1005            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1007
1008    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1011        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1012        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1013        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1014        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1015        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1016        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1017        return (
1018            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1019        )
1020
1021    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1022        return self.prepend_ctes(
1023            expression,
1024            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1025        )
1026
1027    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1028        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1029
1030    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1031        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1032        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1033        count = expression.args.get("count")
1034        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1035        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1036            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1037        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1038        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1039
1040    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1041        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1042            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1043            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1044            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1045
1046        agg = expression.this
1047        agg_arg = agg.this
1048        cond = expression.expression.this
1049        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1050        return self.sql(agg)
1051
1052    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1053        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1054            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1055            return ""
1056
1057        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1058
1059    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1060        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1061        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1062        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1063        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1064        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1065        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1066        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1067        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1068        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1069        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1070        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1071        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1072        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1073        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1074        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1075        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1076
1077    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1078        text = expression.name
1079        lower = text.lower()
1080        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1081        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1082        if (
1083            expression.quoted
1084            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1085            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1086            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1087        ):
1088            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1089        return text
1090
1091    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1092        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1093        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1094        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1095        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1096        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1097
1098    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1099        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1100        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1101
1102    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1103        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1104
1105    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1106        root_properties = []
1107        with_properties = []
1108
1109        for p in expression.expressions:
1110            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1111            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1112                with_properties.append(p)
1113            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1114                root_properties.append(p)
1115
1116        return self.root_properties(
1117            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1118        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1119
1120    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1123        return ""
1124
1125    def properties(
1126        self,
1127        properties: exp.Properties,
1128        prefix: str = "",
1129        sep: str = ", ",
1130        suffix: str = "",
1131        wrapped: bool = True,
1132    ) -> str:
1133        if properties.expressions:
1134            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1135            if expressions:
1136                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1137                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1138        return ""
1139
1140    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1141        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1142
1143    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1144        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1145        for p in properties.expressions:
1146            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1147            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1148                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1149            else:
1150                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1151
1152        return properties_locs
1153
1154    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1155        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1156            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1158
1159    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1160        property_cls = expression.__class__
1161        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1162            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1163
1164        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1165        if not property_name:
1166            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1167
1168        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1169
1170    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1171        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1172        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1173        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1174
1175    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1176        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1177        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1178        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1179
1180    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1181        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1182        local = expression.args.get("local")
1183        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1184        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1185        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1186        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1187        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1188
1189    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1190        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1192        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1193
1194    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1195        if expression.args.get("default"):
1196            property = "DEFAULT"
1197        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1198            property = "ON"
1199        else:
1200            property = "OFF"
1201        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1202
1203    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1204        if expression.args.get("no"):
1205            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1206        if expression.args.get("default"):
1207            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1208
1209        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1210        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1211
1212    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1213        default = expression.args.get("default")
1214        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1215        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1216        if default or minimum or maximum:
1217            if default:
1218                prop = "DEFAULT"
1219            elif minimum:
1220                prop = "MINIMUM"
1221            else:
1222                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1223            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1224        units = expression.args.get("units")
1225        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1226        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1227
1228    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1229        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1230        always = expression.args.get("always")
1231        default = expression.args.get("default")
1232        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1233        never = expression.args.get("never")
1234
1235        if autotemp is not None:
1236            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1237        elif always:
1238            prop = "ALWAYS"
1239        elif default:
1240            prop = "DEFAULT"
1241        elif manual:
1242            prop = "MANUAL"
1243        elif never:
1244            prop = "NEVER"
1245        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1246
1247    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1248        no = expression.args.get("no")
1249        no = " NO" if no else ""
1250        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1251        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1252
1253        for_ = ""
1254        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1255            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1256        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1257            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1258        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1259            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1260        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1261
1262    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1263        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1264            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1265        if expression.this:
1266            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1269
1270        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1271        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1272        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1273
1274    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276
1277        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1278        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1279            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1280        else:
1281            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1282
1283        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1284
1285    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1286        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1287        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1288        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1289        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1290        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1291        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1292        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1293
1294    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1295        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1296        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1297        statistics_sql = ""
1298        if statistics is not None:
1299            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1300        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1301
1302    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1303        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1304
1305        if expression.this:
1306            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1308
1309            if expression.expression:
1310                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1311                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1312
1313            sql = f"{sql})"
1314
1315        return f"{sql})"
1316
1317    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1318        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1319
1320        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1321            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1322        else:
1323            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1324
1325        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1326        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1327        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1328
1329        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1330
1331        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1332        partition_sql = (
1333            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1334        )
1335        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1336        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1337        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1338        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1339        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1340        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1341
1342        if self.RETURNING_END:
1343            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1344        else:
1345            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1346
1347        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1348        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1349
1350    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1351        return self.prepend_ctes(
1352            expression,
1353            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1354        )
1355
1356    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1357        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1358
1359    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1360        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1361
1362    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1363        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1364        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1367        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1368
1369    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1370        return expression.name
1371
1372    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1373        return expression.name
1374
1375    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1376        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1377        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1378        if constraint:
1379            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1380        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1381        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1382        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1384        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1385        if expressions:
1386            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1387        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1388
1389    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1390        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1391
1392    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1393        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1394        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1395        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1396        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1397        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1398        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1399        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1400        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1401        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1402        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1403        null = expression.args.get("null")
1404        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1405        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1406
1407    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1408        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1409
1410    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1411        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1412        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1413        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1414        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1415
1416    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1417        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1418        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1419        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1420        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1421
1422    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1423        table = ".".join(
1424            self.sql(part)
1425            for part in (
1426                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1427                expression.args.get("db"),
1428                expression.args.get("this"),
1429            )
1430            if part is not None
1431        )
1432
1433        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1434        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1436        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1437        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1438        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1439        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1440        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1441        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1442        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1443
1444        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1445        if file_format:
1446            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1447            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1448            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1449
1450        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1451        if ordinality:
1452            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1453            alias = ""
1454
1455        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1456        if when:
1457            table = f"{table} {when}"
1458
1459        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1460
1461    def tablesample_sql(
1462        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1463    ) -> str:
1464        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1465            table = expression.this.copy()
1466            table.set("alias", None)
1467            this = self.sql(table)
1468            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1469        else:
1470            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471            alias = ""
1472
1473        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1474        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1475        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1476        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1477        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1478        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1479        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1480        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1481        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1482        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1483        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1484
1485        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1486        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1487            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1488
1489        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1490        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1491        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1492
1493        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1494        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1495            expr = f"({expr})"
1496
1497        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1498
1499    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1500        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1501
1502        if expression.this:
1503            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504            if not expressions:
1505                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1506
1507            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1508            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1509            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1510            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1511            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1512
1513        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1514        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1515        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1516        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1517        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1518        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1519        if include_nulls is not None:
1520            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1521        else:
1522            nulls = ""
1523        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1524
1525    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1526        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1527        kind = expression.text("kind")
1528        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1529        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1530
1531    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1532        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1533
1534    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1536        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1537        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1538        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1539        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1540        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1541        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1542        if self.RETURNING_END:
1543            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1544        else:
1545            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1546        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1547        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1548
1549    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1550        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1551        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1552            args = self.expressions(expression)
1553            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1554            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1555            values = (
1556                f"({values})"
1557                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1558                else values
1559            )
1560            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1561
1562        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1563        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1564        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1565
1566        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1567
1568        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1569            row = tup.expressions
1570
1571            if i == 0 and column_names:
1572                row = [
1573                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1574                ]
1575
1576            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1577
1578        if self.pretty:
1579            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1580            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1581            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1582            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1583            return self.subquery_sql(
1584                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1585            )
1586
1587        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1588        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1589        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1590
1591    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1592        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1593
1594    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1595        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1596        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1597        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1598
1599    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1600        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1601
1602    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1603        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1604
1605        if expression.args.get("all"):
1606            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1607
1608        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1609        grouping_sets = (
1610            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1611        )
1612
1613        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1614        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1615            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1616        else:
1617            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1618            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1619
1620        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1621        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1622            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1623        else:
1624            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1625            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1626
1627        groupings = csv(
1628            grouping_sets,
1629            cube_sql,
1630            rollup_sql,
1631            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1632            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1633        )
1634
1635        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1636            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1637
1638        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1639
1640    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1641        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1642        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1643
1644    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1645        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1646        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1647        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1648        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1649        return start + connect
1650
1651    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1652        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1655        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1656            side = None
1657        else:
1658            side = expression.side
1659
1660        op_sql = " ".join(
1661            op
1662            for op in (
1663                expression.method,
1664                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1665                side,
1666                expression.kind,
1667                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1668            )
1669            if op
1670        )
1671        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1672        using = expression.args.get("using")
1673
1674        if not on_sql and using:
1675            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1676
1677        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1678
1679        if on_sql:
1680            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1681            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1682            if using:
1683                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1684            else:
1685                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1686        elif not op_sql:
1687            return f", {this_sql}"
1688
1689        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1690        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1691
1692    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1693        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1694        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1695        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1696
1697    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1699
1700        if expression.args.get("view"):
1701            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1702            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1703            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1704            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1705            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1706            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1707
1708        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1709        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1710        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1711
1712    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714
1715        args = [
1716            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1717            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1718            if e
1719        ]
1720
1721        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1722        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1723        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1724
1725    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1727        expression = expression.expression
1728        expression = (
1729            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1730        )
1731        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1732
1733    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1734        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1735        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1738        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1739        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1740        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1741        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1742
1743    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1744        expressions = (
1745            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1746        )
1747        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1748        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1749
1750    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1751        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1752
1753    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1754        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1755            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1756            return ""
1757
1758        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1760        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1761        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1762
1763        if wait is not None:
1764            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1765                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1766            else:
1767                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1768
1769        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1770
1771    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1772        text = expression.this or ""
1773        if expression.is_string:
1774            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1775        return text
1776
1777    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1778        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1779        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1780            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1781        elif self.pretty:
1782            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1783        return text
1784
1785    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1786        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1787        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1788        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1789        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1790        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1791        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1792        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1793        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1794        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1795        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1796        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1797
1798    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1799        return "NULL"
1800
1801    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1802        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1803
1804    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1806        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1807        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1808        interpolated_values = [
1809            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1810            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1811        ]
1812        interpolate = (
1813            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1814        )
1815        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1816
1817    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1818        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1819        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1820        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1821        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1822        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1823        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1824        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1825
1826    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1827        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1828
1829    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1830        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1831
1832    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1833        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1834
1835    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1836        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1837        asc = not desc
1838
1839        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1840        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1841        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1842        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1843        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1844
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846
1847        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1848        nulls_sort_change = ""
1849        if nulls_first and (
1850            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1851        ):
1852            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1853        elif (
1854            nulls_last
1855            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1856            and not nulls_are_last
1857        ):
1858            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1859
1860        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1861        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1862            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1863            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1864            nulls_sort_change = ""
1865
1866        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1867        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1868
1869        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1870
1871    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1872        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1873        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1874        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1875        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1876        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1877        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1878        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1879        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1880        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1881        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1882        definition_sqls = [
1883            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1884            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1885        ]
1886        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1887        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1888        body = "".join(
1889            (
1890                partition,
1891                order,
1892                measures,
1893                rows,
1894                after,
1895                pattern,
1896                define,
1897            )
1898        )
1899        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1901        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1902
1903    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1904        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1905
1906        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1907        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1908
1909        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1910            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1911        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1912            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1913
1914        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1915
1916        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1917            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1918            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1919            else []
1920        )
1921
1922        return csv(
1923            *sqls,
1924            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1925            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1926            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1927            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1928            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1929            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1931            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1932            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1933            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1934            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1935            sep="",
1936        )
1937
1938    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1939        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1940    ) -> t.List[str]:
1941        return [
1942            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1943            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1944        ]
1945
1946    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1947        return [
1948            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1949            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1950            if expression.args.get("windows")
1951            else "",
1952            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1953            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1954            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1955        ]
1956
1957    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1958        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1959        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1960        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1961
1962    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1963        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1964        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1965        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1967        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1968        top = (
1969            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1970            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1971            else ""
1972        )
1973
1974        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1975
1976        if kind:
1977            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1978                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1979            else:
1980                if kind == "STRUCT":
1981                    expressions = self.expressions(
1982                        sqls=[
1983                            self.sql(
1984                                exp.Struct(
1985                                    expressions=[
1986                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1987                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1988                                        )
1989                                        for e in expression.expressions
1990                                    ]
1991                                )
1992                            )
1993                        ]
1994                    )
1995                kind = ""
1996
1997        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1998        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1999        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2000        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2001        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2002            expression,
2003            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2004            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2005            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2006        )
2007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2008
2009    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2012        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2013
2014    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2015        if expression.expressions:
2016            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2017        return ""
2018
2019    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2020        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2021        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2022        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2023        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2024        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2025
2026    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2028        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2029
2030    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        kind = expression.text("kind")
2033        if kind:
2034            kind = f"{kind}."
2035        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2036
2037    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2038        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2039
2040    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2042        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2043
2044        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2045        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2046
2047        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2048        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2049
2050    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2051        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2052        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2053
2054    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2055        return self.prepend_ctes(
2056            expression,
2057            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2058        )
2059
2060    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2061        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2062        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2063        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2064        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2065
2066    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2067        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2068
2069        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2070        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2071
2072        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2073            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2074                alias.append("columns", offset)
2075
2076        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2077            columns = alias.columns
2078            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2079        else:
2080            alias = self.sql(alias)
2081
2082        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2083        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2084            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2085        else:
2086            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2087                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2088            elif offset:
2089                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2090            else:
2091                suffix = alias
2092
2093        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2094
2095    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2096        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2097        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2098
2099    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2102        order = expression.args.get("order")
2103        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2104        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2105        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2106        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2107
2108        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2109
2110        first = expression.args.get("first")
2111        if first is None:
2112            first = ""
2113        else:
2114            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2115
2116        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2117            return f"{this} {alias}"
2118
2119        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2120        return f"{this} ({args})"
2121
2122    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2123        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2124        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2125
2126    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2127        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2128        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2129        end = (
2130            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2131            or "CURRENT ROW"
2132        )
2133        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2134
2135    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2137        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2138        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2139
2140    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2142        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2143        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2144        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2145
2146    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2147        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2148            expression.this,
2149            expression.expressions,
2150            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2151        )
2152        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2153        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2154
2155    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2156        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2157
2158    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2161            this = self.wrap(this)
2162        return f"ANY {this}"
2163
2164    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2165        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2166
2167    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2170
2171        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2172            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2173            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2174
2175        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2176
2177        if default:
2178            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2179
2180        statements.append("END")
2181
2182        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2183            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2184
2185        return " ".join(statements)
2186
2187    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2190        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2191
2192    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2193        order = expression.args.get("order")
2194        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2195        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2196
2197    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2198        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2199        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2200        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2201
2202    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2203        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2204
2205        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2206            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2207        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2208            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2209        else:
2210            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2211
2212    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2213        args = expression.expressions
2214        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2215            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2216
2217        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2218            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2219
2220        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2221            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2222
2223        return args
2224
2225    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2226        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2227
2228        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2229        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2230            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2231
2232        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2233
2234    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2235        return self.func(
2236            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2237        )
2238
2239    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2240        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2241        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2242
2243    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2245        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2246        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2247        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2248        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2249        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2250        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2251        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2252
2253    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2254        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2255        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2256        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2257        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2258
2259    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2260        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2261
2262    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2263        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2264        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2265        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2266
2267    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2268        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2269
2270    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2271        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2272
2273    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2274        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2275        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2276        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2277        if unique_keys is not None:
2278            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2279        else:
2280            unique_keys = ""
2281        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2282        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2283        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2284        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2285        return self.func(
2286            "JSON_OBJECT",
2287            *expression.expressions,
2288            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2289        )
2290
2291    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2292        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2293        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2294        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2295        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2296        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2297        return self.func(
2298            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2299        )
2300
2301    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2304        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2305        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2306        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2307        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2308        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2309        return self.func(
2310            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2311            this,
2312            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2313        )
2314
2315    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2316        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2317        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2318        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2319
2320        if nested_schema:
2321            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2322
2323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2324        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2325        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2326        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2327
2328    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2329        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2330
2331    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2334        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2335        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2336        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2337        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2338        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2339        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2340        return self.func(
2341            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2342        )
2343
2344    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2346        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2347        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2348        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2349        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2350        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2351
2352    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2355        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2356        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2357        with_ = (
2358            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2359            if expressions
2360            else ""
2361        )
2362        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2363
2364    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2365        query = expression.args.get("query")
2366        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2367        field = expression.args.get("field")
2368        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2369
2370        if query:
2371            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2372        elif unnest:
2373            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2374        elif field:
2375            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2376        else:
2377            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2378
2379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2380
2381    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2382        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2383
2384    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2385        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2386        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2387            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2388        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2389
2390        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2391            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2392            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2393
2394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2395        if this:
2396            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2397            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2398
2399        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2400
2401    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2402        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2403
2404    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2407        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2408        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2409        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2410        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2411
2412    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2413        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2414
2415    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2416        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2417            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2418        else:
2419            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2420            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2421
2422        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2423
2424    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2425        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2426        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2428        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2429
2430    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2431        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2432
2433    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2434        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2435        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2436        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2437
2438    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2439        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2440
2441    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2444        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2445
2446    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2449        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2450
2451    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2452        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2453
2454    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2455        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2456
2457    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2458        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2459
2460    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2461        if not self.pretty:
2462            return self.binary(expression, op)
2463
2464        sqls = tuple(
2465            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2466            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2467        )
2468
2469        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2470        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2471
2472    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2473        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2474
2475    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2476        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2477
2478    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2479        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2480
2481    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2483
2484    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2485        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2486
2487    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2488        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2489
2490    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2491        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2492        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2493        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2494        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2495        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2496
2497    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2498        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2499        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2500
2501    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2502        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2503            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2504        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2505
2506    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2507        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2508
2509    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2512        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2513        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2514        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2515
2516    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2519        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2520        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2521        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2522        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2523        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2524        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2525        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2526
2527    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2528        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2529        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2530        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2531        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2532
2533        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2534            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2535
2536        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2537
2538    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2539        return "BEGIN"
2540
2541    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2542        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2543        if chain is not None:
2544            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2545
2546        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2547
2548    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2549        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2550        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2551        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2552
2553    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555
2556        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2557        if dtype:
2558            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2559            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2560            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2561            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2562            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2563
2564        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2565        if default:
2566            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2567
2568        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2569            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2570
2571        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2572
2573    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2574        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2575            # Remove db from tables
2576            expression = expression.transform(
2577                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2578            )
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2581
2582    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2583        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2584
2585        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2586            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2587        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2588            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2589        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2590            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2591        else:
2592            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2593
2594        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2595        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2596        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2597
2598    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2599        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2600            return self.expressions(
2601                expression,
2602                key="actions",
2603                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2604            )
2605        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2606
2607    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2608        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2609        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2610        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2611
2612    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2615        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2616
2617        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2618        if enforced is not None:
2619            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2620
2621        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2622
2623    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2624        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2625        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2626
2627        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2628        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2629        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2630
2631    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2633
2634    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2636
2637    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2638        return self.sql(
2639            exp.Cast(
2640                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2641                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2642            )
2643        )
2644
2645    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2646        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2647            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2648        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2649
2650    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2651        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2652
2653        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2654            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2655
2656        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2657            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2658                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2659            ):
2660                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2661
2662        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2663            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2664                return self.sql(
2665                    exp.cast(
2666                        l / r,
2667                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2668                    )
2669                )
2670
2671        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2672
2673    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2674        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2675
2676    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2677        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2678
2679    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2681
2682    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2684
2685    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2687
2688    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2690
2691    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2693
2694    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2695        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2696
2697    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2699
2700    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2701        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2702
2703    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2705
2706    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2707        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2708            return self.sql(
2709                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2710            )
2711        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2712
2713    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2714        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2715
2716    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2717        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2718
2719    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2720        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2721
2722    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2723        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2724
2725    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2726        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2727
2728    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2729        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2730
2731    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2732        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2733
2734    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2735        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2736
2737    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2738        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2739
2740    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2741        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2742
2743    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2744        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2745
2746    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2747        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2748
2749    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2750        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2751
2752    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2753        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2754
2755    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2756        this = expression.this
2757        expr = expression.expression
2758
2759        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2760            this, expr = expr, this
2761
2762        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2763
2764    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2765        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2766        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2769        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2770
2771    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2772        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2774
2775    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2776        args = []
2777
2778        for key in expression.arg_types:
2779            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2780
2781            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2782                for value in arg_value:
2783                    args.append(value)
2784            elif arg_value is not None:
2785                args.append(arg_value)
2786
2787        if self.normalize_functions:
2788            name = expression.sql_name()
2789        else:
2790            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2791
2792        return self.func(name, *args)
2793
2794    def func(
2795        self,
2796        name: str,
2797        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2798        prefix: str = "(",
2799        suffix: str = ")",
2800    ) -> str:
2801        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2802
2803    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2804        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2805        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2806            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2807        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2808
2809    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2810        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2811
2812    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2813        return format_time(
2814            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2815            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2816            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2817        )
2818
2819    def expressions(
2820        self,
2821        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2822        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2823        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2824        flat: bool = False,
2825        indent: bool = True,
2826        skip_first: bool = False,
2827        sep: str = ", ",
2828        prefix: str = "",
2829    ) -> str:
2830        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2831
2832        if not expressions:
2833            return ""
2834
2835        if flat:
2836            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2837
2838        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2839
2840        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2841        pad = " " * self.pad
2842        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2843
2844        result_sqls = []
2845        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2846            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2847            if not sql:
2848                continue
2849
2850            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2851
2852            if self.pretty:
2853                if self.leading_comma:
2854                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2855                else:
2856                    result_sqls.append(
2857                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2858                    )
2859            else:
2860                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2861
2862        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2863        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2864
2865    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2866        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2867        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2868        if flat:
2869            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2870        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2871
2872    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2873        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2874        if not property_name:
2875            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2876        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2877
2878    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2879        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2880        op = self.seg(op)
2881        return self.query_modifiers(
2882            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2883        )
2884
2885    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2886        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2887
2888    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2889        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2890
2891    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2894        expressions = (
2895            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2896        )
2897        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2898
2899    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2902        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2903
2904    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2905        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2906
2907    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2908        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2909        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2910        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2911        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2912
2913        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2914        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2915            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2916            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2917                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2918        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2919            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2920                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2921            else:
2922                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2923        else:
2924            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2925        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2926
2927    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2928        table = expression.this
2929        table_alias = ""
2930
2931        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2932        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2933            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2934            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2935
2936        this = self.sql(table)
2937        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2938        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2939        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2940
2941        return self.prepend_ctes(
2942            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2943        )
2944
2945    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2946        if expression.args.get("format"):
2947            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2948
2949        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2950
2951    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2954        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2955        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2956        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2957
2958    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2960        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2961        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2962        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2963
2964    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2966
2967    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2968        return ""
2969
2970    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2972        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2973        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2974        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2975        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2976
2977    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2979        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2980
2981        if having:
2982            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2983
2984        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2985
2986    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2987        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2988        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2989        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2990        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2991        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2992        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2993        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2994        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2995        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2996        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2997        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2998        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2999        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3000
3001    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3002        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3003        if key_block_size:
3004            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3005
3006        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3007        if using:
3008            return f"USING {using}"
3009
3010        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3011        if parser:
3012            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3013
3014        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3015        if comment:
3016            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3017
3018        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3019        if visible is not None:
3020            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3021
3022        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3023        if engine_attr:
3024            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3025
3026        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3027        if secondary_engine_attr:
3028            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3029
3030        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3031        return ""
3032
3033    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3035        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3038        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3039        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3040        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3041        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3042        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3043        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3044        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3045
3046    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3047        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3048            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3049
3050        case = exp.Case().when(
3051            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3052            expression.args["true"],
3053            copy=False,
3054        )
3055        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3056        if else_cond:
3057            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3058
3059        return self.sql(case)
3060
3061    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3063        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3064        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3065        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3066        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3067        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3068
3069    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3070        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3071
3072    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3074
3075    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3076        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3078        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3079        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3080        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3081        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3082
3083    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3086        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3087
3088    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3091        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3092
3093    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3095
3096    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3097        arg = expression.this
3098        if not arg.type:
3099            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3100
3101            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3102
3103        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3104            return self.sql(arg)
3105
3106        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3107        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3108
3109    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3110        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3111            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3112
3113            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3114
3115        return expression
3116
3117    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3118        return [
3119            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3120            for value in values
3121            if value
3122        ]
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  25class Generator:
  26    """
  27    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  28
  29    Args:
  30        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  31            Default: False.
  32        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  33            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  34            True or 'always': Always quote.
  35            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  36        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  37            Default: False.
  38        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  39            Default: 2.
  40        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  41            Default: 2.
  42        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  43            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  44            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  45            False: Disables function name normalization.
  46        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  47            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  49            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  50            Default: 3
  51        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  52            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  53            Default: False
  54        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  55            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  56            line length.
  57            Default: 80
  58        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  59            Default: True
  60    """
  61
  62    TRANSFORMS = {
  63        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  64            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  65        ),
  66        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  67        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  70        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  71        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  74        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  80        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  81        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  84        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  87        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  88        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  89        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  90        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  91        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  92        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 100        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 101        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 102        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 103        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 104        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 105        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 106        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 107        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 109        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 110        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 111        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 112    }
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 139    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 142    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 145    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 146
 147    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 148    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 149
 150    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 151    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 152
 153    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 154    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 155
 156    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 157    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 158
 159    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 160    JOIN_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 163    TABLE_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 166    QUERY_HINTS = True
 167
 168    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 169    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 170
 171    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 172    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 175    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 178    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 181    RETURNING_END = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 184    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 187    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 190    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 191
 192    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 193    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 194
 195    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 196    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 197
 198    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 199    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 200    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 201    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 204    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 205
 206    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 207    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 210    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 213    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 216    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 219    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 222    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 225    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 226
 227    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 228    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 231    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 234    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 235
 236    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 237    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 238
 239    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 240        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 249    }
 250
 251    STAR_MAPPING = {
 252        "except": "EXCEPT",
 253        "replace": "REPLACE",
 254    }
 255
 256    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 257        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 258        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 259        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 260        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 261        "DAYS": "DAY",
 262        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 263        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 264        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 265        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 266    }
 267
 268    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 269
 270    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 271
 272    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 273
 274    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 275        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 287        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 294        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 296        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 297        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 298        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 305        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 308        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 309        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 311        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 314        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 317        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 330        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 332        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 334        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 338        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 339        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340    }
 341
 342    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 343    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 344
 345    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 346    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 347        exp.Create,
 348        exp.Delete,
 349        exp.Drop,
 350        exp.From,
 351        exp.Insert,
 352        exp.Join,
 353        exp.Select,
 354        exp.Update,
 355        exp.Where,
 356        exp.With,
 357    )
 358
 359    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 360    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 361        exp.Binary,
 362        exp.Union,
 363    )
 364
 365    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 366    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 367        exp.Column,
 368        exp.Literal,
 369        exp.Neg,
 370        exp.Paren,
 371    )
 372
 373    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 374    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 375
 376    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 377
 378    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 379
 380    __slots__ = (
 381        "pretty",
 382        "identify",
 383        "normalize",
 384        "pad",
 385        "_indent",
 386        "normalize_functions",
 387        "unsupported_level",
 388        "max_unsupported",
 389        "leading_comma",
 390        "max_text_width",
 391        "comments",
 392        "dialect",
 393        "unsupported_messages",
 394        "_escaped_quote_end",
 395        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 396    )
 397
 398    def __init__(
 399        self,
 400        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 401        identify: str | bool = False,
 402        normalize: bool = False,
 403        pad: int = 2,
 404        indent: int = 2,
 405        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 406        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 407        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 408        leading_comma: bool = False,
 409        max_text_width: int = 80,
 410        comments: bool = True,
 411        dialect: DialectType = None,
 412    ):
 413        import sqlglot
 414        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 415
 416        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 417        self.identify = identify
 418        self.normalize = normalize
 419        self.pad = pad
 420        self._indent = indent
 421        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 422        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 423        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 424        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 425        self.comments = comments
 426        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 427
 428        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 429        self.normalize_functions = (
 430            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 431        )
 432
 433        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 434        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 435            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 436        )
 437        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 438            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 439        )
 440
 441    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 442        """
 443        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 444
 445        Args:
 446            expression: The syntax tree.
 447            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 448                it is safer to copy.
 449
 450        Returns:
 451            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 452        """
 453        if copy:
 454            expression = expression.copy()
 455
 456        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 457
 458        self.unsupported_messages = []
 459        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 460
 461        if self.pretty:
 462            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 463
 464        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 465            return sql
 466
 467        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 468            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 469                logger.warning(msg)
 470        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 471            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 472
 473        return sql
 474
 475    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 476        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 477        if (
 478            not expression.parent
 479            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 480            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 481        ):
 482            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 483
 484            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 485
 486        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 487            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 488
 489            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 490
 491        return expression
 492
 493    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 494        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 495            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 496        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 497
 498    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 499        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 500
 501    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 502        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 503
 504    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 505        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 506        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 507        return comment
 508
 509    def maybe_comment(
 510        self,
 511        sql: str,
 512        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 513        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 514    ) -> str:
 515        comments = (
 516            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 517            if self.comments
 518            else None
 519        )
 520
 521        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 522            return sql
 523
 524        comments_sql = " ".join(
 525            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 526        )
 527
 528        if not comments_sql:
 529            return sql
 530
 531        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 532            return (
 533                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 534                if sql[0].isspace()
 535                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 536            )
 537
 538        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 539
 540    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 541        this_sql = self.indent(
 542            self.sql(expression)
 543            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 544            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 545            level=1,
 546            pad=0,
 547        )
 548        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 549
 550    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 551        original = self.identify
 552        self.identify = False
 553        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 554        self.identify = original
 555        return result
 556
 557    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 558        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 559            return name.upper()
 560        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 561            return name.lower()
 562        return name
 563
 564    def indent(
 565        self,
 566        sql: str,
 567        level: int = 0,
 568        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 569        skip_first: bool = False,
 570        skip_last: bool = False,
 571    ) -> str:
 572        if not self.pretty:
 573            return sql
 574
 575        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 576        lines = sql.split("\n")
 577
 578        return "\n".join(
 579            line
 580            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 581            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 582            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 583        )
 584
 585    def sql(
 586        self,
 587        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 588        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 589        comment: bool = True,
 590    ) -> str:
 591        if not expression:
 592            return ""
 593
 594        if isinstance(expression, str):
 595            return expression
 596
 597        if key:
 598            value = expression.args.get(key)
 599            if value:
 600                return self.sql(value)
 601            return ""
 602
 603        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 604
 605        if callable(transform):
 606            sql = transform(self, expression)
 607        elif transform:
 608            sql = transform
 609        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 610            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 611
 612            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 613                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 614            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 615                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 616            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 617                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 618            else:
 619                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 620        else:
 621            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 622
 623        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 624
 625    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 626        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 628        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 629
 630    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 631        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 632        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 633        options = expression.args.get("options")
 634        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 635        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 636        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 637        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 638        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 639
 640    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 641        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 642            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 643        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 644        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 645
 646    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 647        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 648
 649        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 650            join_mark = ""
 651            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 652
 653        column = ".".join(
 654            self.sql(part)
 655            for part in (
 656                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 657                expression.args.get("db"),
 658                expression.args.get("table"),
 659                expression.args.get("this"),
 660            )
 661            if part
 662        )
 663
 664        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 665
 666    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 668        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 669        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 670        return f"{position}{this}"
 671
 672    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 673        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 674        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 675        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 676        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 677        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 678        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 679        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 680        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 681
 682        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 683            kind = ""
 684
 685        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 686
 687    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 689        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 690        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 691
 692    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 694        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 695            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 696        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 697            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 698        else:
 699            persisted = ""
 700        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 701
 702    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 703        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 704
 705    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 706        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 707            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 708        else:
 709            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 710
 711        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 712
 713    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 714        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 715    ) -> str:
 716        this = ""
 717        if expression.this is not None:
 718            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 719            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 720
 721        start = expression.args.get("start")
 722        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 723        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 724        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 725        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 726        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 727        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 728        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 729        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 730        cycle_sql = ""
 731
 732        if cycle is not None:
 733            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 734            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 735
 736        sequence_opts = ""
 737        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 738            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 739            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 740
 741        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 742        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 743
 744        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 745
 746    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 747        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 748    ) -> str:
 749        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 750        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 751        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 752
 753    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 754        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 755    ) -> str:
 756        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 757
 758    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 759        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 760
 761    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 762        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 763
 764    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 765        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 766        if desc is not None:
 767            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 768        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 769
 770    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 772        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 773        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 774        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 775        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 776
 777    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 778        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 779
 780    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 781        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 782        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 783        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 784
 785        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 786
 787        properties_sql = ""
 788        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 789            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 790        ):
 791            properties_sql = self.sql(
 792                exp.Properties(
 793                    expressions=[
 794                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 795                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 796                    ]
 797                )
 798            )
 799
 800        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 801        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 802
 803        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 804        if expression_sql:
 805            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 806
 807            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 808                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 809                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 810                        exp.Properties(
 811                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 812                        ),
 813                        wrapped=False,
 814                    )
 815                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 816                else:
 817                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 818
 819        postindex_props_sql = ""
 820        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 821            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 822                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 823                wrapped=False,
 824                prefix=" ",
 825            )
 826
 827        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 828        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 829        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 830
 831        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 832        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 833
 834        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 835        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 836            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 837                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 838                sep=" ",
 839                prefix=" ",
 840                wrapped=False,
 841            )
 842
 843        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 844
 845        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 846        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 847            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 848                exp.Properties(
 849                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 850                ),
 851                sep=" ",
 852                prefix=" ",
 853                wrapped=False,
 854            )
 855
 856        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 857        no_schema_binding = (
 858            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 859        )
 860
 861        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 862        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 863
 864        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 865        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 866
 867    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 870        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 871        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 872
 873    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 874        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 875
 876    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 877        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 878        if with_:
 879            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 880        return sql
 881
 882    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 883        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 884        recursive = (
 885            "RECURSIVE "
 886            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 887            else ""
 888        )
 889
 890        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 891
 892    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 893        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 894        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 895
 896    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 897        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 899        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 900
 901        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 902            alias = "_t"
 903
 904        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 905
 906    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 909            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 910        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 911
 912    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 915            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 916        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 917
 918    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 920        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 921            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 922        return this
 923
 924    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 926        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 927
 928        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 929            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 930            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 931
 932        if escape:
 933            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 934        else:
 935            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 936
 937        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 938        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 939
 940    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 941        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 942        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 943
 944    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 947        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 948        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 949
 950    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 951        type_value = expression.this
 952
 953        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 954            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        else:
 956            type_sql = (
 957                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 958                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 959                else type_value
 960            )
 961
 962        nested = ""
 963        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 964        values = ""
 965
 966        if interior:
 967            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 968                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 969                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 970                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 971                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 972                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 973            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 974                nested = f" {interior}"
 975            else:
 976                nested = f"({interior})"
 977
 978        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 979        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 981            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 982        ):
 983            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 984
 985        return type_sql
 986
 987    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 988        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 989        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 990        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 991        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 992
 993    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 996        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 997        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 998        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1001        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1002        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1003        if self.RETURNING_END:
1004            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1005        else:
1006            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1008
1009    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1012        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1013        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1014        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1015        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1016        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1017        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1018        return (
1019            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1020        )
1021
1022    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(
1024            expression,
1025            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1026        )
1027
1028    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1029        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1030
1031    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1032        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1033        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1034        count = expression.args.get("count")
1035        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1036        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1037            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1038        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1039        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1040
1041    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1042        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1043            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1045            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1046
1047        agg = expression.this
1048        agg_arg = agg.this
1049        cond = expression.expression.this
1050        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1051        return self.sql(agg)
1052
1053    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1054        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1055            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1056            return ""
1057
1058        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1059
1060    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1061        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1062        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1063        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1064        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1066        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1067        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1069        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1070        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1071        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1072        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1073        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1074        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1076        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1077
1078    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1079        text = expression.name
1080        lower = text.lower()
1081        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1082        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1083        if (
1084            expression.quoted
1085            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1086            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1087            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1088        ):
1089            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1090        return text
1091
1092    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1093        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1094        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1095        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1096        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1097        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1098
1099    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1100        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1101        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1102
1103    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1104        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1105
1106    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1107        root_properties = []
1108        with_properties = []
1109
1110        for p in expression.expressions:
1111            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1112            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1113                with_properties.append(p)
1114            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1115                root_properties.append(p)
1116
1117        return self.root_properties(
1118            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1119        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1120
1121    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1122        if properties.expressions:
1123            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1124        return ""
1125
1126    def properties(
1127        self,
1128        properties: exp.Properties,
1129        prefix: str = "",
1130        sep: str = ", ",
1131        suffix: str = "",
1132        wrapped: bool = True,
1133    ) -> str:
1134        if properties.expressions:
1135            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1136            if expressions:
1137                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1138                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1139        return ""
1140
1141    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1142        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1143
1144    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1145        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1146        for p in properties.expressions:
1147            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1148            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1149                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1150            else:
1151                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1152
1153        return properties_locs
1154
1155    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1157            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1159
1160    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1161        property_cls = expression.__class__
1162        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1163            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1164
1165        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1166        if not property_name:
1167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1168
1169        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1170
1171    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1172        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1173        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1174        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1175
1176    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1177        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1178        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1179        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1180
1181    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1182        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1183        local = expression.args.get("local")
1184        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1185        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1186        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1187        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1188        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1189
1190    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1191        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1192        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1193        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1194
1195    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1196        if expression.args.get("default"):
1197            property = "DEFAULT"
1198        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1199            property = "ON"
1200        else:
1201            property = "OFF"
1202        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1203
1204    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("no"):
1206            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1207        if expression.args.get("default"):
1208            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1209
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1212
1213    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1214        default = expression.args.get("default")
1215        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1216        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1217        if default or minimum or maximum:
1218            if default:
1219                prop = "DEFAULT"
1220            elif minimum:
1221                prop = "MINIMUM"
1222            else:
1223                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1224            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1225        units = expression.args.get("units")
1226        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1227        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1228
1229    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1230        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1231        always = expression.args.get("always")
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1234        never = expression.args.get("never")
1235
1236        if autotemp is not None:
1237            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1238        elif always:
1239            prop = "ALWAYS"
1240        elif default:
1241            prop = "DEFAULT"
1242        elif manual:
1243            prop = "MANUAL"
1244        elif never:
1245            prop = "NEVER"
1246        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1247
1248    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1249        no = expression.args.get("no")
1250        no = " NO" if no else ""
1251        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1252        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1253
1254        for_ = ""
1255        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1256            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1257        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1258            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1259        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1260            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1261        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1262
1263    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1264        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1265            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1266        if expression.this:
1267            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1269            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1270
1271        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1272        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1273        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1274
1275    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277
1278        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1279        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1280            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1281        else:
1282            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1283
1284        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1285
1286    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1287        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1288        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1289        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1290        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1291        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1292        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1293        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1294
1295    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1296        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1297        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1298        statistics_sql = ""
1299        if statistics is not None:
1300            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1301        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1302
1303    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1304        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1305
1306        if expression.this:
1307            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1309
1310            if expression.expression:
1311                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1312                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1313
1314            sql = f"{sql})"
1315
1316        return f"{sql})"
1317
1318    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1319        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1320
1321        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1322            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1323        else:
1324            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1325
1326        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1327        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1328        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1329
1330        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1331
1332        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1333        partition_sql = (
1334            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1335        )
1336        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1337        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1338        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1339        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1340        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1341        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1342
1343        if self.RETURNING_END:
1344            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1345        else:
1346            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1347
1348        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1349        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1350
1351    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1352        return self.prepend_ctes(
1353            expression,
1354            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1355        )
1356
1357    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1358        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1359
1360    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1361        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1362
1363    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1368        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1369
1370    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1371        return expression.name
1372
1373    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1374        return expression.name
1375
1376    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1377        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1378        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1379        if constraint:
1380            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1381        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1382        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1383        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1384        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1385        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1386        if expressions:
1387            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1388        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1389
1390    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1391        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1392
1393    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1394        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1395        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1396        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1397        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1398        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1399        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1400        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1401        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1402        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1403        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1404        null = expression.args.get("null")
1405        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1406        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1407
1408    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1409        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1410
1411    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1412        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1413        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1414        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1415        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1416
1417    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1420        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1421        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1422
1423    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1424        table = ".".join(
1425            self.sql(part)
1426            for part in (
1427                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1428                expression.args.get("db"),
1429                expression.args.get("this"),
1430            )
1431            if part is not None
1432        )
1433
1434        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1435        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1436        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1437        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1438        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1439        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1440        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1441        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1442        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1443        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1444
1445        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1446        if file_format:
1447            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1448            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1449            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1450
1451        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1452        if ordinality:
1453            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1454            alias = ""
1455
1456        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1457        if when:
1458            table = f"{table} {when}"
1459
1460        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1461
1462    def tablesample_sql(
1463        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1464    ) -> str:
1465        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1466            table = expression.this.copy()
1467            table.set("alias", None)
1468            this = self.sql(table)
1469            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1470        else:
1471            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472            alias = ""
1473
1474        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1475        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1476        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1477        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1478        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1479        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1480        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1481        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1482        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1483        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1484        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1485
1486        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1487        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1488            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1489
1490        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1491        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1492        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1493
1494        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1495        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1496            expr = f"({expr})"
1497
1498        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1499
1500    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1502
1503        if expression.this:
1504            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505            if not expressions:
1506                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1507
1508            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1509            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1510            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1511            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1512            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1513
1514        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1515        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1516        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1517        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1518        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1519        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1520        if include_nulls is not None:
1521            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1522        else:
1523            nulls = ""
1524        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1525
1526    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1527        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1528        kind = expression.text("kind")
1529        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1530        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1531
1532    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1533        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1534
1535    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1538        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1539        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1540        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1541        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1542        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1543        if self.RETURNING_END:
1544            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1545        else:
1546            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1547        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1548        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1549
1550    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1551        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1552        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1553            args = self.expressions(expression)
1554            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1555            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1556            values = (
1557                f"({values})"
1558                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1559                else values
1560            )
1561            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1562
1563        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1564        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1565        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1566
1567        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1568
1569        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1570            row = tup.expressions
1571
1572            if i == 0 and column_names:
1573                row = [
1574                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1575                ]
1576
1577            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1578
1579        if self.pretty:
1580            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1581            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1582            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1583            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1584            return self.subquery_sql(
1585                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1586            )
1587
1588        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1589        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1590        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1591
1592    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1593        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1594
1595    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1596        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1597        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1598        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1599
1600    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1601        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1602
1603    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1604        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1605
1606        if expression.args.get("all"):
1607            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1608
1609        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1610        grouping_sets = (
1611            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1612        )
1613
1614        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1615        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1616            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1617        else:
1618            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1619            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1620
1621        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1622        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1623            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1624        else:
1625            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1626            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1627
1628        groupings = csv(
1629            grouping_sets,
1630            cube_sql,
1631            rollup_sql,
1632            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1633            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1634        )
1635
1636        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1637            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1638
1639        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1640
1641    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1642        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1643        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1644
1645    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1646        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1647        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1648        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1649        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1650        return start + connect
1651
1652    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1653        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1654
1655    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1656        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1657            side = None
1658        else:
1659            side = expression.side
1660
1661        op_sql = " ".join(
1662            op
1663            for op in (
1664                expression.method,
1665                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1666                side,
1667                expression.kind,
1668                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1669            )
1670            if op
1671        )
1672        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1673        using = expression.args.get("using")
1674
1675        if not on_sql and using:
1676            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1677
1678        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1679
1680        if on_sql:
1681            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1682            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1683            if using:
1684                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1685            else:
1686                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1687        elif not op_sql:
1688            return f", {this_sql}"
1689
1690        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1691        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1692
1693    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1694        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1695        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1696        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1697
1698    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700
1701        if expression.args.get("view"):
1702            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1703            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1704            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1705            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1706            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1707            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1708
1709        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1710        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1711        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1712
1713    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1715
1716        args = [
1717            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1718            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1719            if e
1720        ]
1721
1722        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1723        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1724        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1725
1726    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        expression = expression.expression
1729        expression = (
1730            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1731        )
1732        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1733
1734    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1735        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1736        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1739        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1740        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1741        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1742        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1743
1744    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1745        expressions = (
1746            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1747        )
1748        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1749        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1750
1751    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1752        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1753
1754    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1755        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1756            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1757            return ""
1758
1759        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1761        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1762        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1763
1764        if wait is not None:
1765            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1766                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1767            else:
1768                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1769
1770        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1771
1772    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1773        text = expression.this or ""
1774        if expression.is_string:
1775            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1776        return text
1777
1778    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1779        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1780        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1781            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1782        elif self.pretty:
1783            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1784        return text
1785
1786    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1787        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1788        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1789        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1790        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1791        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1792        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1793        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1794        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1795        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1796        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1797        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1798
1799    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1800        return "NULL"
1801
1802    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1803        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1804
1805    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1808        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1809        interpolated_values = [
1810            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1811            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1812        ]
1813        interpolate = (
1814            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1815        )
1816        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1817
1818    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1819        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1820        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1821        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1822        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1823        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1824        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1825        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1826
1827    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1828        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1829
1830    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1831        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1832
1833    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1834        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1835
1836    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1837        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1838        asc = not desc
1839
1840        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1841        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1842        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1843        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1844        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1845
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847
1848        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1849        nulls_sort_change = ""
1850        if nulls_first and (
1851            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1852        ):
1853            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1854        elif (
1855            nulls_last
1856            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1857            and not nulls_are_last
1858        ):
1859            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1860
1861        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1862        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1863            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1864            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1865            nulls_sort_change = ""
1866
1867        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1868        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1869
1870        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1871
1872    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1873        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1874        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1875        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1876        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1877        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1878        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1879        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1880        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1881        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1882        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1883        definition_sqls = [
1884            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1885            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1886        ]
1887        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1888        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1889        body = "".join(
1890            (
1891                partition,
1892                order,
1893                measures,
1894                rows,
1895                after,
1896                pattern,
1897                define,
1898            )
1899        )
1900        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1902        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1903
1904    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1905        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1906
1907        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1908        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1909
1910        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1911            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1912        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1913            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1914
1915        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1916
1917        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1918            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1919            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1920            else []
1921        )
1922
1923        return csv(
1924            *sqls,
1925            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1926            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1927            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1928            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1929            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1931            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1932            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1933            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1934            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1935            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1936            sep="",
1937        )
1938
1939    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1940        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1941    ) -> t.List[str]:
1942        return [
1943            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1944            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1945        ]
1946
1947    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1948        return [
1949            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1950            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1951            if expression.args.get("windows")
1952            else "",
1953            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1954            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1955            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1956        ]
1957
1958    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1959        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1960        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1961        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1962
1963    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1964        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1965        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1966        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1967        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1968        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1969        top = (
1970            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1971            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1972            else ""
1973        )
1974
1975        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1976
1977        if kind:
1978            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1979                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1980            else:
1981                if kind == "STRUCT":
1982                    expressions = self.expressions(
1983                        sqls=[
1984                            self.sql(
1985                                exp.Struct(
1986                                    expressions=[
1987                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1988                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1989                                        )
1990                                        for e in expression.expressions
1991                                    ]
1992                                )
1993                            )
1994                        ]
1995                    )
1996                kind = ""
1997
1998        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1999        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2000        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2001        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2002        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2003            expression,
2004            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2005            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2006            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2007        )
2008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2009
2010    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2013        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2014
2015    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2016        if expression.expressions:
2017            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2018        return ""
2019
2020    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2021        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2022        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2023        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2024        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2025        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2026
2027    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2030
2031    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        kind = expression.text("kind")
2034        if kind:
2035            kind = f"{kind}."
2036        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2037
2038    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2039        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2040
2041    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2043        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2044
2045        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2046        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2047
2048        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2049        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2050
2051    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2052        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2053        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2054
2055    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2056        return self.prepend_ctes(
2057            expression,
2058            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2059        )
2060
2061    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2062        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2063        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2064        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2065        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2066
2067    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2068        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2069
2070        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2071        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2072
2073        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2074            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2075                alias.append("columns", offset)
2076
2077        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2078            columns = alias.columns
2079            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2080        else:
2081            alias = self.sql(alias)
2082
2083        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2084        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2085            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2086        else:
2087            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2088                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2089            elif offset:
2090                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2091            else:
2092                suffix = alias
2093
2094        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2095
2096    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2097        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2098        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2099
2100    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2103        order = expression.args.get("order")
2104        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2105        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2106        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2107        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2108
2109        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2110
2111        first = expression.args.get("first")
2112        if first is None:
2113            first = ""
2114        else:
2115            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2116
2117        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2118            return f"{this} {alias}"
2119
2120        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2121        return f"{this} ({args})"
2122
2123    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2124        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2125        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2126
2127    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2128        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2129        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2130        end = (
2131            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2132            or "CURRENT ROW"
2133        )
2134        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2135
2136    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2138        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2139        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2140
2141    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2144        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2145        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2146
2147    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2148        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2149            expression.this,
2150            expression.expressions,
2151            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2152        )
2153        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2154        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2155
2156    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2157        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2158
2159    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2162            this = self.wrap(this)
2163        return f"ANY {this}"
2164
2165    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2166        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2167
2168    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2171
2172        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2173            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2174            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2175
2176        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2177
2178        if default:
2179            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2180
2181        statements.append("END")
2182
2183        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2184            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2185
2186        return " ".join(statements)
2187
2188    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2191        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2192
2193    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2194        order = expression.args.get("order")
2195        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2196        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2197
2198    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2200        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2201        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2202
2203    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2204        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2205
2206        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2207            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2208        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2209            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2210        else:
2211            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2212
2213    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2214        args = expression.expressions
2215        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2216            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2217
2218        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2219            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2220
2221        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2222            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2223
2224        return args
2225
2226    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2227        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2228
2229        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2230        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2231            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2232
2233        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2234
2235    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2236        return self.func(
2237            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2238        )
2239
2240    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2241        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2242        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2243
2244    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2246        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2247        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2248        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2249        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2250        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2251        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2252        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2253
2254    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2257        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2258        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2259
2260    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2261        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2262
2263    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2264        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2265        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2266        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2267
2268    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2270
2271    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2272        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2273
2274    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2275        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2276        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2277        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2278        if unique_keys is not None:
2279            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2280        else:
2281            unique_keys = ""
2282        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2283        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2284        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2285        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2286        return self.func(
2287            "JSON_OBJECT",
2288            *expression.expressions,
2289            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2290        )
2291
2292    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2293        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2294        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2295        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2296        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2297        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2298        return self.func(
2299            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2300        )
2301
2302    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2304        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2305        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2306        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2307        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2308        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2309        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2310        return self.func(
2311            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2312            this,
2313            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2314        )
2315
2316    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2317        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2318        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2319        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2320
2321        if nested_schema:
2322            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2323
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2326        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2327        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2328
2329    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2330        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2331
2332    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2335        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2336        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2337        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2338        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2339        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2340        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2341        return self.func(
2342            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2343        )
2344
2345    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2348        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2349        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2350        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2351        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2352
2353    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2356        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2357        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2358        with_ = (
2359            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2360            if expressions
2361            else ""
2362        )
2363        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2364
2365    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2366        query = expression.args.get("query")
2367        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2368        field = expression.args.get("field")
2369        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2370
2371        if query:
2372            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2373        elif unnest:
2374            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2375        elif field:
2376            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2377        else:
2378            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2379
2380        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2381
2382    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2383        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2384
2385    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2386        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2387        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2388            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2389        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2390
2391        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2392            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2393            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2394
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        if this:
2397            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2398            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2399
2400        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2401
2402    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2403        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2404
2405    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2408        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2409        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2410        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2411        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2412
2413    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2414        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2415
2416    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2417        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2418            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2419        else:
2420            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2421            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2422
2423        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2424
2425    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2426        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2427        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2428        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2429        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2430
2431    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2432        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2433
2434    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2436        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2437        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2438
2439    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2440        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2441
2442    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2445        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2446
2447    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2450        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2451
2452    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2453        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2454
2455    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2456        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2457
2458    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2459        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2460
2461    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2462        if not self.pretty:
2463            return self.binary(expression, op)
2464
2465        sqls = tuple(
2466            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2467            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2468        )
2469
2470        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2471        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2472
2473    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2474        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2475
2476    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2477        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2478
2479    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2480        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2481
2482    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2483        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2484
2485    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2486        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2487
2488    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2490
2491    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2492        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2493        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2494        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2495        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2496        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2497
2498    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2499        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2500        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2501
2502    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2503        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2504            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2505        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2506
2507    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2509
2510    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2513        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2514        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2515        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2516
2517    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2520        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2521        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2522        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2523        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2524        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2525        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2526        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2527
2528    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2529        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2530        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2531        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2532        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2533
2534        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2535            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2536
2537        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2538
2539    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2540        return "BEGIN"
2541
2542    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2543        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2544        if chain is not None:
2545            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2546
2547        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2548
2549    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2550        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2551        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2552        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2553
2554    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556
2557        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2558        if dtype:
2559            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2560            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2561            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2562            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2563            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2564
2565        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2566        if default:
2567            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2568
2569        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2570            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2571
2572        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2573
2574    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2575        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2576            # Remove db from tables
2577            expression = expression.transform(
2578                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2579            )
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2582
2583    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2584        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2585
2586        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2587            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2588        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2589            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2590        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2591            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2592        else:
2593            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2594
2595        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2596        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2597        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2598
2599    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2600        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2601            return self.expressions(
2602                expression,
2603                key="actions",
2604                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2605            )
2606        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2607
2608    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2609        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2610        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2611        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2612
2613    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2616        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2617
2618        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2619        if enforced is not None:
2620            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2621
2622        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2623
2624    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2625        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2626        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2627
2628        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2629        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2630        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2631
2632    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2634
2635    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2637
2638    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2639        return self.sql(
2640            exp.Cast(
2641                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2642                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2643            )
2644        )
2645
2646    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2647        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2648            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2649        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2650
2651    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2652        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2653
2654        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2655            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2656
2657        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2658            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2659                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2660            ):
2661                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2662
2663        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2664            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2665                return self.sql(
2666                    exp.cast(
2667                        l / r,
2668                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2669                    )
2670                )
2671
2672        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2673
2674    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2675        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2676
2677    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2678        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2679
2680    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2682
2683    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2684        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2685
2686    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2687        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2688
2689    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2690        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2691
2692    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2693        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2694
2695    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2696        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2697
2698    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2699        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2700
2701    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2702        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2703
2704    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2705        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2706
2707    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2708        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2709            return self.sql(
2710                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2711            )
2712        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2713
2714    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2716
2717    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2718        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2719
2720    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2721        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2722
2723    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2724        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2725
2726    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2727        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2728
2729    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2730        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2731
2732    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2733        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2734
2735    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2736        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2737
2738    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2739        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2740
2741    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2742        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2743
2744    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2745        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2746
2747    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2748        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2749
2750    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2752
2753    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2754        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2755
2756    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2757        this = expression.this
2758        expr = expression.expression
2759
2760        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2761            this, expr = expr, this
2762
2763        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2764
2765    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2766        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2767        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2770        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2771
2772    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2773        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2775
2776    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2777        args = []
2778
2779        for key in expression.arg_types:
2780            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2781
2782            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2783                for value in arg_value:
2784                    args.append(value)
2785            elif arg_value is not None:
2786                args.append(arg_value)
2787
2788        if self.normalize_functions:
2789            name = expression.sql_name()
2790        else:
2791            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2792
2793        return self.func(name, *args)
2794
2795    def func(
2796        self,
2797        name: str,
2798        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2799        prefix: str = "(",
2800        suffix: str = ")",
2801    ) -> str:
2802        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2803
2804    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2805        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2806        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2807            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2808        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2809
2810    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2811        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2812
2813    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2814        return format_time(
2815            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2816            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2817            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2818        )
2819
2820    def expressions(
2821        self,
2822        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2823        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2824        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2825        flat: bool = False,
2826        indent: bool = True,
2827        skip_first: bool = False,
2828        sep: str = ", ",
2829        prefix: str = "",
2830    ) -> str:
2831        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2832
2833        if not expressions:
2834            return ""
2835
2836        if flat:
2837            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2838
2839        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2840
2841        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2842        pad = " " * self.pad
2843        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2844
2845        result_sqls = []
2846        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2847            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2848            if not sql:
2849                continue
2850
2851            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2852
2853            if self.pretty:
2854                if self.leading_comma:
2855                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2856                else:
2857                    result_sqls.append(
2858                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2859                    )
2860            else:
2861                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2862
2863        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2864        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2865
2866    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2867        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2868        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2869        if flat:
2870            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2871        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2872
2873    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2874        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2875        if not property_name:
2876            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2877        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2878
2879    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2880        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2881        op = self.seg(op)
2882        return self.query_modifiers(
2883            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2884        )
2885
2886    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2887        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2888
2889    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2890        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2891
2892    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2895        expressions = (
2896            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2897        )
2898        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2899
2900    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2903        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2904
2905    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2906        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2907
2908    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2909        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2910        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2911        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2912        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2913
2914        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2915        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2916            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2917            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2918                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2919        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2920            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2921                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2922            else:
2923                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2924        else:
2925            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2926        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2927
2928    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2929        table = expression.this
2930        table_alias = ""
2931
2932        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2933        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2934            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2935            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2936
2937        this = self.sql(table)
2938        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2939        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2941
2942        return self.prepend_ctes(
2943            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2944        )
2945
2946    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2947        if expression.args.get("format"):
2948            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2949
2950        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2951
2952    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2955        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2956        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2957        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2958
2959    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2962        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2963        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2964
2965    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2967
2968    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2969        return ""
2970
2971    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2973        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2974        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2975        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2976        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2977
2978    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2980        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2981
2982        if having:
2983            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2984
2985        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2986
2987    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2988        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2989        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2990        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2991        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2992        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2993        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2994        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2995        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2996        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2997        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2998        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2999        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3000        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3001
3002    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3003        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3004        if key_block_size:
3005            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3006
3007        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3008        if using:
3009            return f"USING {using}"
3010
3011        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3012        if parser:
3013            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3014
3015        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3016        if comment:
3017            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3018
3019        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3020        if visible is not None:
3021            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3022
3023        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3024        if engine_attr:
3025            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3026
3027        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3028        if secondary_engine_attr:
3029            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3030
3031        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3032        return ""
3033
3034    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3035        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3036        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3039        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3040        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3041        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3042        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3043        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3044        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3045        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3046
3047    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3048        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3049            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3050
3051        case = exp.Case().when(
3052            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3053            expression.args["true"],
3054            copy=False,
3055        )
3056        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3057        if else_cond:
3058            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3059
3060        return self.sql(case)
3061
3062    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3064        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3065        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3066        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3067        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3068        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3069
3070    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3072
3073    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3075
3076    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3077        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3078        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3079        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3080        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3081        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3082        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3083
3084    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3087        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3088
3089    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3092        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3093
3094    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3096
3097    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3098        arg = expression.this
3099        if not arg.type:
3100            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3101
3102            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3103
3104        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3105            return self.sql(arg)
3106
3107        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3108        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3109
3110    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3111        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3112            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3113
3114            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3115
3116        return expression
3117
3118    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3119        return [
3120            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3121            for value in values
3122            if value
3123        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
398    def __init__(
399        self,
400        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
401        identify: str | bool = False,
402        normalize: bool = False,
403        pad: int = 2,
404        indent: int = 2,
405        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
406        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
407        max_unsupported: int = 3,
408        leading_comma: bool = False,
409        max_text_width: int = 80,
410        comments: bool = True,
411        dialect: DialectType = None,
412    ):
413        import sqlglot
414        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
415
416        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
417        self.identify = identify
418        self.normalize = normalize
419        self.pad = pad
420        self._indent = indent
421        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
422        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
423        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
424        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
425        self.comments = comments
426        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
427
428        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
429        self.normalize_functions = (
430            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
431        )
432
433        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
434        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
435            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
436        )
437        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
438            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
439        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
441    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
442        """
443        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
444
445        Args:
446            expression: The syntax tree.
447            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
448                it is safer to copy.
449
450        Returns:
451            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
452        """
453        if copy:
454            expression = expression.copy()
455
456        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
457
458        self.unsupported_messages = []
459        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
460
461        if self.pretty:
462            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
463
464        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
465            return sql
466
467        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
468            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
469                logger.warning(msg)
470        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
471            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
472
473        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
475    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
476        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
477        if (
478            not expression.parent
479            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
480            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
481        ):
482            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
483
484            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
485
486        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
487            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
488
489            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
490
491        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
493    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
494        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
495            raise UnsupportedError(message)
496        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
498    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
499        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
501    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
502        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
504    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
505        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
506        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
507        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
509    def maybe_comment(
510        self,
511        sql: str,
512        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
513        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
514    ) -> str:
515        comments = (
516            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
517            if self.comments
518            else None
519        )
520
521        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
522            return sql
523
524        comments_sql = " ".join(
525            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
526        )
527
528        if not comments_sql:
529            return sql
530
531        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
532            return (
533                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
534                if sql[0].isspace()
535                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
536            )
537
538        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
540    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
541        this_sql = self.indent(
542            self.sql(expression)
543            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
544            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
545            level=1,
546            pad=0,
547        )
548        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
550    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
551        original = self.identify
552        self.identify = False
553        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
554        self.identify = original
555        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
557    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
558        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
559            return name.upper()
560        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
561            return name.lower()
562        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
564    def indent(
565        self,
566        sql: str,
567        level: int = 0,
568        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
569        skip_first: bool = False,
570        skip_last: bool = False,
571    ) -> str:
572        if not self.pretty:
573            return sql
574
575        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
576        lines = sql.split("\n")
577
578        return "\n".join(
579            line
580            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
581            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
582            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
583        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
585    def sql(
586        self,
587        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
588        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
589        comment: bool = True,
590    ) -> str:
591        if not expression:
592            return ""
593
594        if isinstance(expression, str):
595            return expression
596
597        if key:
598            value = expression.args.get(key)
599            if value:
600                return self.sql(value)
601            return ""
602
603        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
604
605        if callable(transform):
606            sql = transform(self, expression)
607        elif transform:
608            sql = transform
609        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
610            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
611
612            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
613                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
614            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
615                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
616            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
617                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
618            else:
619                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
620        else:
621            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
622
623        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
625    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
626        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
627        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
628        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
630    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
631        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
632        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
633        options = expression.args.get("options")
634        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
635        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
636        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
637        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
638        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
640    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
641        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
642            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
643        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
644        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
646    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
647        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
648
649        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
650            join_mark = ""
651            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
652
653        column = ".".join(
654            self.sql(part)
655            for part in (
656                expression.args.get("catalog"),
657                expression.args.get("db"),
658                expression.args.get("table"),
659                expression.args.get("this"),
660            )
661            if part
662        )
663
664        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
666    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
668        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
669        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
670        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
672    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
673        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
674        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
675        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
676        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
677        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
678        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
679        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
680        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
681
682        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
683            kind = ""
684
685        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
687    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
689        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
690        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
692    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
694        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
695            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
696        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
697            persisted = " PERSISTED"
698        else:
699            persisted = ""
700        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
702    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
703        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
705    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
706        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
707            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
708        else:
709            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
710
711        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
713    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
714        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
715    ) -> str:
716        this = ""
717        if expression.this is not None:
718            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
719            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
720
721        start = expression.args.get("start")
722        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
723        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
724        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
725        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
726        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
727        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
728        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
729        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
730        cycle_sql = ""
731
732        if cycle is not None:
733            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
734            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
735
736        sequence_opts = ""
737        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
738            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
739            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
740
741        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
742        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
743
744        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
746    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
747        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
748    ) -> str:
749        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
750        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
751        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
753    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
754        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
755    ) -> str:
756        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
758    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
759        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
761    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
762        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
764    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
765        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
766        if desc is not None:
767            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
768        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
770    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
772        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
773        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
774        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
775        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
777    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
778        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
780    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
781        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
782        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
783        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
784
785        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
786
787        properties_sql = ""
788        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
789            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
790        ):
791            properties_sql = self.sql(
792                exp.Properties(
793                    expressions=[
794                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
795                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
796                    ]
797                )
798            )
799
800        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
801        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
802
803        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
804        if expression_sql:
805            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
806
807            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
808                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
809                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
810                        exp.Properties(
811                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
812                        ),
813                        wrapped=False,
814                    )
815                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
816                else:
817                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
818
819        postindex_props_sql = ""
820        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
821            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
822                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
823                wrapped=False,
824                prefix=" ",
825            )
826
827        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
828        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
829        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
830
831        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
832        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
833
834        postcreate_props_sql = ""
835        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
836            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
837                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
838                sep=" ",
839                prefix=" ",
840                wrapped=False,
841            )
842
843        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
844
845        postexpression_props_sql = ""
846        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
847            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
848                exp.Properties(
849                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
850                ),
851                sep=" ",
852                prefix=" ",
853                wrapped=False,
854            )
855
856        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
857        no_schema_binding = (
858            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
859        )
860
861        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
862        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
863
864        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
865        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
867    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
869        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
870        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
871        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
873    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
874        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
876    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
877        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
878        if with_:
879            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
880        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
882    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
883        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
884        recursive = (
885            "RECURSIVE "
886            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
887            else ""
888        )
889
890        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
892    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
893        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
894        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
896    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
897        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
898        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
899        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
900
901        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
902            alias = "_t"
903
904        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
906    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
908        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
909            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
910        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
912    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
914        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
915            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
916        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
918    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
920        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
921            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
922        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
924    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
926        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
927
928        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
929            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
930            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
931
932        if escape:
933            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
934        else:
935            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
936
937        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
938        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
940    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
941        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
942        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
944    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
946        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
947        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
948        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
950    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
951        type_value = expression.this
952
953        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
954            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
955        else:
956            type_sql = (
957                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
958                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
959                else type_value
960            )
961
962        nested = ""
963        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
964        values = ""
965
966        if interior:
967            if expression.args.get("nested"):
968                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
969                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
970                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
971                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
972                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
973            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
974                nested = f" {interior}"
975            else:
976                nested = f"({interior})"
977
978        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
979        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
981            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
982        ):
983            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
984
985        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
987    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
988        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
989        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
990        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
991        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
 993    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 996        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 997        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 998        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1001        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1002        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1003        if self.RETURNING_END:
1004            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1005        else:
1006            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1009    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1012        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1013        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1014        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1015        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1016        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1017        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1018        return (
1019            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1020        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1022    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(
1024            expression,
1025            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1026        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1028    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1029        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1031    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1032        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1033        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1034        count = expression.args.get("count")
1035        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1036        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1037            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1038        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1039        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1041    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1042        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1043            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1045            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1046
1047        agg = expression.this
1048        agg_arg = agg.this
1049        cond = expression.expression.this
1050        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1051        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1053    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1054        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1055            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1056            return ""
1057
1058        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1060    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1061        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1062        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1063        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1064        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1066        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1067        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1069        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1070        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1071        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1072        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1073        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1074        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1076        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1078    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1079        text = expression.name
1080        lower = text.lower()
1081        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1082        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1083        if (
1084            expression.quoted
1085            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1086            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1087            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1088        ):
1089            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1090        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1092    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1093        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1094        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1095        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1096        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1097        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1099    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1100        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1101        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1103    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1104        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1106    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1107        root_properties = []
1108        with_properties = []
1109
1110        for p in expression.expressions:
1111            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1112            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1113                with_properties.append(p)
1114            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1115                root_properties.append(p)
1116
1117        return self.root_properties(
1118            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1119        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1121    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1122        if properties.expressions:
1123            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1124        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1126    def properties(
1127        self,
1128        properties: exp.Properties,
1129        prefix: str = "",
1130        sep: str = ", ",
1131        suffix: str = "",
1132        wrapped: bool = True,
1133    ) -> str:
1134        if properties.expressions:
1135            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1136            if expressions:
1137                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1138                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1139        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1141    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1142        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1144    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1145        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1146        for p in properties.expressions:
1147            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1148            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1149                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1150            else:
1151                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1152
1153        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1155    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1157            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1160    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1161        property_cls = expression.__class__
1162        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1163            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1164
1165        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1166        if not property_name:
1167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1168
1169        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1171    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1172        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1173        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1174        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1176    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1177        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1178        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1179        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1181    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1182        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1183        local = expression.args.get("local")
1184        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1185        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1186        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1187        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1188        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1190    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1191        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1192        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1193        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1195    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1196        if expression.args.get("default"):
1197            property = "DEFAULT"
1198        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1199            property = "ON"
1200        else:
1201            property = "OFF"
1202        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1204    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("no"):
1206            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1207        if expression.args.get("default"):
1208            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1209
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1213    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1214        default = expression.args.get("default")
1215        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1216        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1217        if default or minimum or maximum:
1218            if default:
1219                prop = "DEFAULT"
1220            elif minimum:
1221                prop = "MINIMUM"
1222            else:
1223                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1224            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1225        units = expression.args.get("units")
1226        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1227        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1229    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1230        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1231        always = expression.args.get("always")
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1234        never = expression.args.get("never")
1235
1236        if autotemp is not None:
1237            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1238        elif always:
1239            prop = "ALWAYS"
1240        elif default:
1241            prop = "DEFAULT"
1242        elif manual:
1243            prop = "MANUAL"
1244        elif never:
1245            prop = "NEVER"
1246        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1248    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1249        no = expression.args.get("no")
1250        no = " NO" if no else ""
1251        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1252        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1253
1254        for_ = ""
1255        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1256            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1257        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1258            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1259        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1260            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1261        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1263    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1264        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1265            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1266        if expression.this:
1267            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1269            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1270
1271        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1272        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1273        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1275    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277
1278        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1279        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1280            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1281        else:
1282            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1283
1284        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1286    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1287        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1288        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1289        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1290        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1291        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1292        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1293        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1295    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1296        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1297        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1298        statistics_sql = ""
1299        if statistics is not None:
1300            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1301        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1303    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1304        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1305
1306        if expression.this:
1307            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1309
1310            if expression.expression:
1311                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1312                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1313
1314            sql = f"{sql})"
1315
1316        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1318    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1319        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1320
1321        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1322            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1323        else:
1324            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1325
1326        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1327        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1328        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1329
1330        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1331
1332        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1333        partition_sql = (
1334            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1335        )
1336        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1337        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1338        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1339        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1340        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1341        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1342
1343        if self.RETURNING_END:
1344            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1345        else:
1346            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1347
1348        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1349        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1351    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1352        return self.prepend_ctes(
1353            expression,
1354            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1355        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1357    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1358        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1360    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1361        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1363    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1368        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1370    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1371        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1373    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1374        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1376    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1377        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1378        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1379        if constraint:
1380            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1381        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1382        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1383        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1384        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1385        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1386        if expressions:
1387            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1388        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1390    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1391        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1393    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1394        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1395        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1396        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1397        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1398        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1399        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1400        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1401        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1402        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1403        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1404        null = expression.args.get("null")
1405        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1406        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1408    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1409        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1411    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1412        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1413        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1414        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1415        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1417    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1420        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1421        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1423    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1424        table = ".".join(
1425            self.sql(part)
1426            for part in (
1427                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1428                expression.args.get("db"),
1429                expression.args.get("this"),
1430            )
1431            if part is not None
1432        )
1433
1434        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1435        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1436        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1437        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1438        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1439        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1440        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1441        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1442        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1443        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1444
1445        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1446        if file_format:
1447            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1448            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1449            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1450
1451        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1452        if ordinality:
1453            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1454            alias = ""
1455
1456        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1457        if when:
1458            table = f"{table} {when}"
1459
1460        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1462    def tablesample_sql(
1463        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1464    ) -> str:
1465        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1466            table = expression.this.copy()
1467            table.set("alias", None)
1468            this = self.sql(table)
1469            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1470        else:
1471            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472            alias = ""
1473
1474        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1475        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1476        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1477        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1478        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1479        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1480        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1481        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1482        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1483        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1484        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1485
1486        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1487        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1488            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1489
1490        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1491        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1492        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1493
1494        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1495        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1496            expr = f"({expr})"
1497
1498        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1500    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1502
1503        if expression.this:
1504            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505            if not expressions:
1506                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1507
1508            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1509            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1510            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1511            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1512            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1513
1514        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1515        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1516        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1517        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1518        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1519        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1520        if include_nulls is not None:
1521            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1522        else:
1523            nulls = ""
1524        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1526    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1527        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1528        kind = expression.text("kind")
1529        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1530        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1532    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1533        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1535    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1538        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1539        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1540        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1541        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1542        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1543        if self.RETURNING_END:
1544            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1545        else:
1546            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1547        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1548        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1550    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1551        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1552        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1553            args = self.expressions(expression)
1554            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1555            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1556            values = (
1557                f"({values})"
1558                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1559                else values
1560            )
1561            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1562
1563        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1564        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1565        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1566
1567        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1568
1569        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1570            row = tup.expressions
1571
1572            if i == 0 and column_names:
1573                row = [
1574                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1575                ]
1576
1577            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1578
1579        if self.pretty:
1580            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1581            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1582            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1583            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1584            return self.subquery_sql(
1585                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1586            )
1587
1588        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1589        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1590        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1592    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1593        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1595    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1596        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1597        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1598        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1600    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1601        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1603    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1604        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1605
1606        if expression.args.get("all"):
1607            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1608
1609        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1610        grouping_sets = (
1611            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1612        )
1613
1614        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1615        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1616            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1617        else:
1618            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1619            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1620
1621        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1622        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1623            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1624        else:
1625            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1626            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1627
1628        groupings = csv(
1629            grouping_sets,
1630            cube_sql,
1631            rollup_sql,
1632            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1633            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1634        )
1635
1636        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1637            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1638
1639        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1641    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1642        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1643        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1645    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1646        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1647        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1648        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1649        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1650        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1652    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1653        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1655    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1656        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1657            side = None
1658        else:
1659            side = expression.side
1660
1661        op_sql = " ".join(
1662            op
1663            for op in (
1664                expression.method,
1665                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1666                side,
1667                expression.kind,
1668                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1669            )
1670            if op
1671        )
1672        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1673        using = expression.args.get("using")
1674
1675        if not on_sql and using:
1676            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1677
1678        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1679
1680        if on_sql:
1681            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1682            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1683            if using:
1684                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1685            else:
1686                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1687        elif not op_sql:
1688            return f", {this_sql}"
1689
1690        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1691        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1693    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1694        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1695        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1696        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1698    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700
1701        if expression.args.get("view"):
1702            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1703            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1704            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1705            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1706            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1707            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1708
1709        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1710        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1711        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1713    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1715
1716        args = [
1717            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1718            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1719            if e
1720        ]
1721
1722        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1723        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1724        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1726    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        expression = expression.expression
1729        expression = (
1730            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1731        )
1732        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1734    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1735        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1736        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1739        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1740        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1741        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1742        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1744    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1745        expressions = (
1746            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1747        )
1748        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1749        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1751    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1752        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1754    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1755        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1756            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1757            return ""
1758
1759        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1761        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1762        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1763
1764        if wait is not None:
1765            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1766                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1767            else:
1768                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1769
1770        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1772    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1773        text = expression.this or ""
1774        if expression.is_string:
1775            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1776        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1778    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1779        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1780        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1781            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1782        elif self.pretty:
1783            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1784        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1786    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1787        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1788        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1789        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1790        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1791        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1792        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1793        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1794        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1795        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1796        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1797        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1799    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1800        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1802    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1803        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1805    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1808        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1809        interpolated_values = [
1810            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1811            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1812        ]
1813        interpolate = (
1814            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1815        )
1816        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
1818    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1819        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1820        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1821        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1822        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1823        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1824        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1825        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1827    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1828        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1830    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1831        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1833    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1834        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1836    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1837        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1838        asc = not desc
1839
1840        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1841        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1842        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1843        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1844        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1845
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847
1848        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1849        nulls_sort_change = ""
1850        if nulls_first and (
1851            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1852        ):
1853            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1854        elif (
1855            nulls_last
1856            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1857            and not nulls_are_last
1858        ):
1859            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1860
1861        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1862        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1863            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1864            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1865            nulls_sort_change = ""
1866
1867        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1868        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1869
1870        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1872    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1873        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1874        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1875        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1876        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1877        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1878        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1879        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1880        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1881        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1882        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1883        definition_sqls = [
1884            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1885            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1886        ]
1887        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1888        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1889        body = "".join(
1890            (
1891                partition,
1892                order,
1893                measures,
1894                rows,
1895                after,
1896                pattern,
1897                define,
1898            )
1899        )
1900        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1902        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1904    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1905        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1906
1907        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1908        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1909
1910        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1911            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1912        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1913            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1914
1915        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1916
1917        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1918            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1919            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1920            else []
1921        )
1922
1923        return csv(
1924            *sqls,
1925            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1926            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1927            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1928            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1929            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1931            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1932            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1933            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1934            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1935            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1936            sep="",
1937        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1939    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1940        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1941    ) -> t.List[str]:
1942        return [
1943            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1944            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1945        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1947    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1948        return [
1949            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1950            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1951            if expression.args.get("windows")
1952            else "",
1953            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1954            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1955            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1956        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1958    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1959        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1960        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1961        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1963    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1964        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1965        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1966        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1967        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1968        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1969        top = (
1970            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1971            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1972            else ""
1973        )
1974
1975        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1976
1977        if kind:
1978            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1979                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1980            else:
1981                if kind == "STRUCT":
1982                    expressions = self.expressions(
1983                        sqls=[
1984                            self.sql(
1985                                exp.Struct(
1986                                    expressions=[
1987                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1988                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1989                                        )
1990                                        for e in expression.expressions
1991                                    ]
1992                                )
1993                            )
1994                        ]
1995                    )
1996                kind = ""
1997
1998        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1999        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2000        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2001        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2002        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2003            expression,
2004            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2005            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2006            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2007        )
2008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2010    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2013        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2015    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2016        if expression.expressions:
2017            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2018        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2020    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2021        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2022        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2023        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2024        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2025        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2027    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2031    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        kind = expression.text("kind")
2034        if kind:
2035            kind = f"{kind}."
2036        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2038    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2039        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2041    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2043        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2044
2045        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2046        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2047
2048        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2049        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2051    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2052        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2053        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2055    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2056        return self.prepend_ctes(
2057            expression,
2058            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2059        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2061    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2062        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2063        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2064        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2065        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2067    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2068        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2069
2070        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2071        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2072
2073        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2074            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2075                alias.append("columns", offset)
2076
2077        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2078            columns = alias.columns
2079            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2080        else:
2081            alias = self.sql(alias)
2082
2083        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2084        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2085            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2086        else:
2087            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2088                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2089            elif offset:
2090                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2091            else:
2092                suffix = alias
2093
2094        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2096    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2097        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2098        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2100    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2103        order = expression.args.get("order")
2104        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2105        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2106        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2107        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2108
2109        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2110
2111        first = expression.args.get("first")
2112        if first is None:
2113            first = ""
2114        else:
2115            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2116
2117        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2118            return f"{this} {alias}"
2119
2120        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2121        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2123    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2124        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2125        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2127    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2128        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2129        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2130        end = (
2131            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2132            or "CURRENT ROW"
2133        )
2134        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2136    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2138        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2139        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2141    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2144        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2145        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2147    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2148        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2149            expression.this,
2150            expression.expressions,
2151            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2152        )
2153        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2154        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2156    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2157        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2159    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2162            this = self.wrap(this)
2163        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2165    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2166        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2168    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2171
2172        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2173            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2174            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2175
2176        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2177
2178        if default:
2179            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2180
2181        statements.append("END")
2182
2183        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2184            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2185
2186        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2188    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2191        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2193    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2194        order = expression.args.get("order")
2195        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2196        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2198    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2200        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2201        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2203    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2204        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2205
2206        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2207            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2208        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2209            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2210        else:
2211            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2213    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2214        args = expression.expressions
2215        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2216            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2217
2218        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2219            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2220
2221        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2222            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2223
2224        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2226    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2227        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2228
2229        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2230        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2231            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2232
2233        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2235    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2236        return self.func(
2237            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2238        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2240    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2241        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2242        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2244    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2246        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2247        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2248        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2249        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2250        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2251        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2252        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2254    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2257        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2258        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2260    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2261        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2263    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2264        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2265        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2266        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2268    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2271    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2272        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2274    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2275        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2276        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2277        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2278        if unique_keys is not None:
2279            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2280        else:
2281            unique_keys = ""
2282        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2283        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2284        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2285        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2286        return self.func(
2287            "JSON_OBJECT",
2288            *expression.expressions,
2289            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2290        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2292    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2293        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2294        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2295        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2296        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2297        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2298        return self.func(
2299            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2300        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2302    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2304        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2305        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2306        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2307        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2308        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2309        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2310        return self.func(
2311            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2312            this,
2313            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2314        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2316    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2317        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2318        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2319        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2320
2321        if nested_schema:
2322            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2323
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2326        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2327        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2329    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2330        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2332    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2335        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2336        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2337        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2338        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2339        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2340        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2341        return self.func(
2342            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2343        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2345    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2348        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2349        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2350        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2351        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2353    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2356        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2357        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2358        with_ = (
2359            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2360            if expressions
2361            else ""
2362        )
2363        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2365    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2366        query = expression.args.get("query")
2367        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2368        field = expression.args.get("field")
2369        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2370
2371        if query:
2372            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2373        elif unnest:
2374            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2375        elif field:
2376            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2377        else:
2378            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2379
2380        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2382    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2383        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2385    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2386        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2387        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2388            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2389        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2390
2391        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2392            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2393            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2394
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        if this:
2397            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2398            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2399
2400        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2402    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2403        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2405    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2408        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2409        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2410        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2411        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2413    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2414        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2416    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2417        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2418            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2419        else:
2420            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2421            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2422
2423        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2425    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2426        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2427        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2428        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2429        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2431    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2432        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2434    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2436        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2437        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2439    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2440        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2442    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2445        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2447    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2450        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2452    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2453        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2455    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2456        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2458    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2459        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2461    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2462        if not self.pretty:
2463            return self.binary(expression, op)
2464
2465        sqls = tuple(
2466            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2467            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2468        )
2469
2470        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2471        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2473    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2474        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2476    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2477        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2479    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2480        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2482    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2483        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2485    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2486        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2488    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2491    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2492        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2493        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2494        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2495        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2496        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2498    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2499        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2500        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2502    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2503        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2504            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2505        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2507    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2510    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2513        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2514        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2515        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2517    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2520        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2521        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2522        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2523        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2524        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2525        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2526        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2528    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2529        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2530        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2531        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2532        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2533
2534        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2535            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2536
2537        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2539    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2540        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2542    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2543        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2544        if chain is not None:
2545            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2546
2547        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2549    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2550        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2551        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2552        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2554    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556
2557        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2558        if dtype:
2559            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2560            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2561            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2562            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2563            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2564
2565        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2566        if default:
2567            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2568
2569        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2570            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2571
2572        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2574    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2575        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2576            # Remove db from tables
2577            expression = expression.transform(
2578                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2579            )
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2583    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2584        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2585
2586        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2587            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2588        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2589            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2590        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2591            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2592        else:
2593            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2594
2595        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2596        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2597        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2599    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2600        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2601            return self.expressions(
2602                expression,
2603                key="actions",
2604                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2605            )
2606        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2608    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2609        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2610        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2611        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2613    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2616        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2617
2618        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2619        if enforced is not None:
2620            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2621
2622        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2624    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2625        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2626        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2627
2628        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2629        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2630        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2632    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2635    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2638    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2639        return self.sql(
2640            exp.Cast(
2641                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2642                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2643            )
2644        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2646    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2647        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2648            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2649        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2651    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2652        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2653
2654        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2655            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2656
2657        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2658            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2659                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2660            ):
2661                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2662
2663        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2664            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2665                return self.sql(
2666                    exp.cast(
2667                        l / r,
2668                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2669                    )
2670                )
2671
2672        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2674    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2675        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2677    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2678        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2680    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2683    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2684        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2686    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2687        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2689    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2690        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2692    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2693        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2695    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2696        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2698    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2699        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2701    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2702        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2704    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2705        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2707    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2708        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2709            return self.sql(
2710                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2711            )
2712        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2714    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2717    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2718        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2720    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2721        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2723    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2724        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2726    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2727        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2729    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2730        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2732    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2733        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2735    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2736        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2738    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2739        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2741    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2742        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2744    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2745        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2747    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2748        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2750    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2753    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2754        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2756    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2757        this = expression.this
2758        expr = expression.expression
2759
2760        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2761            this, expr = expr, this
2762
2763        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2765    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2766        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2767        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2770        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2772    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2773        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2776    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2777        args = []
2778
2779        for key in expression.arg_types:
2780            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2781
2782            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2783                for value in arg_value:
2784                    args.append(value)
2785            elif arg_value is not None:
2786                args.append(arg_value)
2787
2788        if self.normalize_functions:
2789            name = expression.sql_name()
2790        else:
2791            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2792
2793        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2795    def func(
2796        self,
2797        name: str,
2798        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2799        prefix: str = "(",
2800        suffix: str = ")",
2801    ) -> str:
2802        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2804    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2805        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2806        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2807            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2808        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2810    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2811        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2813    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2814        return format_time(
2815            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2816            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2817            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2818        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2820    def expressions(
2821        self,
2822        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2823        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2824        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2825        flat: bool = False,
2826        indent: bool = True,
2827        skip_first: bool = False,
2828        sep: str = ", ",
2829        prefix: str = "",
2830    ) -> str:
2831        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2832
2833        if not expressions:
2834            return ""
2835
2836        if flat:
2837            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2838
2839        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2840
2841        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2842        pad = " " * self.pad
2843        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2844
2845        result_sqls = []
2846        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2847            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2848            if not sql:
2849                continue
2850
2851            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2852
2853            if self.pretty:
2854                if self.leading_comma:
2855                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2856                else:
2857                    result_sqls.append(
2858                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2859                    )
2860            else:
2861                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2862
2863        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2864        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2866    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2867        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2868        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2869        if flat:
2870            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2871        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2873    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2874        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2875        if not property_name:
2876            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2877        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2879    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2880        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2881        op = self.seg(op)
2882        return self.query_modifiers(
2883            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2884        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2886    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2887        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2889    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2890        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2892    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2895        expressions = (
2896            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2897        )
2898        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2900    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2903        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2905    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2906        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2908    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2909        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2910        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2911        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2912        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2913
2914        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2915        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2916            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2917            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2918                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2919        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2920            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2921                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2922            else:
2923                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2924        else:
2925            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2926        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2928    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2929        table = expression.this
2930        table_alias = ""
2931
2932        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2933        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2934            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2935            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2936
2937        this = self.sql(table)
2938        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2939        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2941
2942        return self.prepend_ctes(
2943            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2944        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2946    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2947        if expression.args.get("format"):
2948            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2949
2950        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2952    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2955        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2956        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2957        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2959    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2962        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2963        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2965    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2968    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2969        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2971    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2973        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2974        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2975        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2976        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2978    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2980        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2981
2982        if having:
2983            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2984
2985        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2987    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2988        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2989        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2990        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2991        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2992        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2993        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2994        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2995        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2996        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2997        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2998        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2999        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3000        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3002    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3003        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3004        if key_block_size:
3005            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3006
3007        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3008        if using:
3009            return f"USING {using}"
3010
3011        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3012        if parser:
3013            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3014
3015        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3016        if comment:
3017            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3018
3019        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3020        if visible is not None:
3021            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3022
3023        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3024        if engine_attr:
3025            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3026
3027        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3028        if secondary_engine_attr:
3029            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3030
3031        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3032        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3034    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3035        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3036        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3039        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3040        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3041        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3042        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3043        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3044        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3045        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3047    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3048        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3049            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3050
3051        case = exp.Case().when(
3052            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3053            expression.args["true"],
3054            copy=False,
3055        )
3056        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3057        if else_cond:
3058            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3059
3060        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3062    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3064        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3065        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3066        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3067        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3068        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3070    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3073    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3076    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3077        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3078        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3079        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3080        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3081        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3082        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3084    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3087        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3089    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3092        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3094    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3097    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3098        arg = expression.this
3099        if not arg.type:
3100            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3101
3102            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3103
3104        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3105            return self.sql(arg)
3106
3107        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3108        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))