Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 147    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 148
 149    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 150    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 151
 152    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 153    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 154
 155    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 156        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 158        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 159        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 160        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 161        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 162        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 163    }
 164
 165    STAR_MAPPING = {
 166        "except": "EXCEPT",
 167        "replace": "REPLACE",
 168    }
 169
 170    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 171        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 172        "seconds": "second",
 173        "minutes": "minute",
 174        "hours": "hour",
 175        "days": "day",
 176        "weeks": "week",
 177        "months": "month",
 178        "quarters": "quarter",
 179        "years": "year",
 180    }
 181
 182    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 183
 184    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 185
 186    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 187
 188    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 189        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 190        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 194        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 199        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 200        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 208        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 209        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 216        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 219        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 220        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 221        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 223        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 225        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 240        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 243        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244    }
 245
 246    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 247    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 248
 249    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 250    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 251        exp.Select,
 252        exp.From,
 253        exp.Where,
 254        exp.With,
 255    )
 256
 257    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 258    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 259        exp.Column,
 260        exp.Literal,
 261        exp.Neg,
 262        exp.Paren,
 263    )
 264
 265    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 266
 267    # Autofilled
 268    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 269    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 270    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 271    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 272    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 273    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 274    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 275    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 276    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 277    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 278
 279    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 280
 281    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 282    QUOTE_START = "'"
 283    QUOTE_END = "'"
 284    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 285    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 286    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 287    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 288
 289    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 290    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 291    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 292    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 293    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 294    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 295    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 296
 297    __slots__ = (
 298        "pretty",
 299        "identify",
 300        "normalize",
 301        "pad",
 302        "_indent",
 303        "normalize_functions",
 304        "unsupported_level",
 305        "max_unsupported",
 306        "leading_comma",
 307        "max_text_width",
 308        "comments",
 309        "unsupported_messages",
 310        "_escaped_quote_end",
 311        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 312        "_cache",
 313    )
 314
 315    def __init__(
 316        self,
 317        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 318        identify: str | bool = False,
 319        normalize: bool = False,
 320        pad: int = 2,
 321        indent: int = 2,
 322        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 323        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 324        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 325        leading_comma: bool = False,
 326        max_text_width: int = 80,
 327        comments: bool = True,
 328    ):
 329        import sqlglot
 330
 331        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 332        self.identify = identify
 333        self.normalize = normalize
 334        self.pad = pad
 335        self._indent = indent
 336        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 337        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 338        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 339        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 340        self.comments = comments
 341
 342        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 343        self.normalize_functions = (
 344            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 345        )
 346
 347        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 348        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 349        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 350        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 351
 352    def generate(
 353        self,
 354        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 355        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 356    ) -> str:
 357        """
 358        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 359
 360        Args:
 361            expression: The syntax tree.
 362            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 363                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 364
 365        Returns:
 366            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 367        """
 368        if cache is not None:
 369            self._cache = cache
 370
 371        self.unsupported_messages = []
 372        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 373        self._cache = None
 374
 375        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 376            return sql
 377
 378        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 379            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 380                logger.warning(msg)
 381        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 382            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 383
 384        if self.pretty:
 385            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 386        return sql
 387
 388    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 389        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 390            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 391        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 392
 393    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 394        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 395
 396    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 397        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 398
 399    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 400        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 401        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 402        return comment
 403
 404    def maybe_comment(
 405        self,
 406        sql: str,
 407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 408        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 409    ) -> str:
 410        comments = (
 411            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 412            if self.comments
 413            else None
 414        )
 415
 416        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 417            return sql
 418
 419        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 420        comments_sql = sep.join(
 421            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 422        )
 423
 424        if not comments_sql:
 425            return sql
 426
 427        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 428            return (
 429                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 430                if sql[0].isspace()
 431                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 432            )
 433
 434        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 435
 436    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 437        this_sql = self.indent(
 438            self.sql(expression)
 439            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 440            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 441            level=1,
 442            pad=0,
 443        )
 444        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 445
 446    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 447        original = self.identify
 448        self.identify = False
 449        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 450        self.identify = original
 451        return result
 452
 453    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 454        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 455            return name.upper()
 456        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 457            return name.lower()
 458        return name
 459
 460    def indent(
 461        self,
 462        sql: str,
 463        level: int = 0,
 464        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 465        skip_first: bool = False,
 466        skip_last: bool = False,
 467    ) -> str:
 468        if not self.pretty:
 469            return sql
 470
 471        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 472        lines = sql.split("\n")
 473
 474        return "\n".join(
 475            line
 476            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 477            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 478            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 479        )
 480
 481    def sql(
 482        self,
 483        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 484        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 485        comment: bool = True,
 486    ) -> str:
 487        if not expression:
 488            return ""
 489
 490        if isinstance(expression, str):
 491            return expression
 492
 493        if key:
 494            value = expression.args.get(key)
 495            if value:
 496                return self.sql(value)
 497            return ""
 498
 499        if self._cache is not None:
 500            expression_id = hash(expression)
 501
 502            if expression_id in self._cache:
 503                return self._cache[expression_id]
 504
 505        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 506
 507        if callable(transform):
 508            sql = transform(self, expression)
 509        elif transform:
 510            sql = transform
 511        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 512            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 513
 514            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 515                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 516            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 517                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 518            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 519                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 520            else:
 521                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 522        else:
 523            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 524
 525        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 526
 527        if self._cache is not None:
 528            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 529        return sql
 530
 531    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 532        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 533        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 534        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 535
 536    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 537        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        options = expression.args.get("options")
 540        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 541        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 542        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 543        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 545
 546    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 547        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 548            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 549        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 550        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 551
 552    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 553        return ".".join(
 554            self.sql(part)
 555            for part in (
 556                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 557                expression.args.get("db"),
 558                expression.args.get("table"),
 559                expression.args.get("this"),
 560            )
 561            if part
 562        )
 563
 564    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 566        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 567        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 568        return f"{position}{this}"
 569
 570    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 571        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 573        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 574        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 575        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 576        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 577        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 578        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 579
 580        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 581
 582    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 584        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 585        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 586
 587    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 588        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 589
 590    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 592            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 593        else:
 594            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 595
 596        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 597
 598    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 599        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 600    ) -> str:
 601        this = ""
 602        if expression.this is not None:
 603            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 604            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 605
 606        start = expression.args.get("start")
 607        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 608        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 609        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 610        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 611        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 612        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 613        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 614        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 615        cycle_sql = ""
 616
 617        if cycle is not None:
 618            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 619            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 620
 621        sequence_opts = ""
 622        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 623            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 624            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 625
 626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 627        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 628
 629        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 630
 631    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 633
 634    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 636        if desc is not None:
 637            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 638        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 639
 640    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 642        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 643        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 644
 645    def createable_sql(
 646        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 647    ) -> str:
 648        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 649
 650    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 651        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 652        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 653        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 654
 655        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 656
 657        properties_sql = ""
 658        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 659            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 660        ):
 661            properties_sql = self.sql(
 662                exp.Properties(
 663                    expressions=[
 664                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 666                    ]
 667                )
 668            )
 669
 670        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 671        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 672        if expression_sql:
 673            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 674
 675            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 676                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 677                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 678                        exp.Properties(
 679                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 680                        ),
 681                        wrapped=False,
 682                    )
 683                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 684                else:
 685                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 686
 687        postindex_props_sql = ""
 688        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 689            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 690                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 691                wrapped=False,
 692                prefix=" ",
 693            )
 694
 695        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 696        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 697        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 698
 699        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 700        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 701
 702        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 703        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 704            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 705                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 706                sep=" ",
 707                prefix=" ",
 708                wrapped=False,
 709            )
 710
 711        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 712
 713        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 714        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 715            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 716                exp.Properties(
 717                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 718                ),
 719                sep=" ",
 720                prefix=" ",
 721                wrapped=False,
 722            )
 723
 724        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 725        no_schema_binding = (
 726            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 727        )
 728
 729        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 730        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 731
 732        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 733        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 734
 735    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 737        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 738
 739        if when:
 740            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 741            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 742            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 743
 744        return f"CLONE {this}"
 745
 746    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 747        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 748
 749    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 750        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 751        if with_:
 752            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 753        return sql
 754
 755    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 756        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 757        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 758
 759        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 760
 761    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 763        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 764
 765    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 766        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 768        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 769        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 770
 771    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 773        if self.BIT_START:
 774            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 775        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 776
 777    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 779        if self.HEX_START:
 780            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 781        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 782
 783    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 785        if self.BYTE_START:
 786            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 787        return this
 788
 789    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 790        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 791        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 792
 793    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 796        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 797        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 798
 799    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 800        type_value = expression.this
 801        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 802        nested = ""
 803        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 804        values = ""
 805        if interior:
 806            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 807                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 808                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 809                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 810                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 811                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 812            else:
 813                nested = f"({interior})"
 814
 815        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 816
 817    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 818        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 819        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 820        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 821        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 822
 823    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 826        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 827        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 828        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 829        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 830        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 831        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 832        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 833        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 834        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 835
 836    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 839        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 840        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 841        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 842        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 843        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 844        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 845        return (
 846            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 847        )
 848
 849    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 850        return self.prepend_ctes(
 851            expression,
 852            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 853        )
 854
 855    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 856        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 857
 858    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 859        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 860        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 861        count = expression.args.get("count")
 862        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 863        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 864            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 865        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 866        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 867
 868    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 871        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 872
 873    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 874        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 875            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 876        return ""
 877
 878    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 879        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 880        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 881        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 882        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 883        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 884        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 885        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 886        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 887        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 888        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 889        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 890        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 891        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 892        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 893
 894    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 895        text = expression.name
 896        lower = text.lower()
 897        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 898        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 899        if (
 900            expression.quoted
 901            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 902            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 903            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 904        ):
 905            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 906        return text
 907
 908    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 909        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 910        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 911        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 912        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 913        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 914
 915    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 916        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 917        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 918
 919    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 920        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 921
 922    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 923        root_properties = []
 924        with_properties = []
 925
 926        for p in expression.expressions:
 927            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 928            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 929                with_properties.append(p)
 930            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 931                root_properties.append(p)
 932
 933        return self.root_properties(
 934            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 935        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 936
 937    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 938        if properties.expressions:
 939            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 940        return ""
 941
 942    def properties(
 943        self,
 944        properties: exp.Properties,
 945        prefix: str = "",
 946        sep: str = ", ",
 947        suffix: str = "",
 948        wrapped: bool = True,
 949    ) -> str:
 950        if properties.expressions:
 951            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 952            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 953            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 954        return ""
 955
 956    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 957        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 958
 959    def locate_properties(
 960        self, properties: exp.Properties
 961    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 962        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 963            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 964        }
 965
 966        for p in properties.expressions:
 967            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 968            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 981                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 982            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 983                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 984
 985        return properties_locs
 986
 987    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 988        property_cls = expression.__class__
 989        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 990            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 991
 992        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 993        if not property_name:
 994            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 995
 996        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 997
 998    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 999        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1000        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1001        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1002
1003    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1004        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1005        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1006        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1007
1008    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1009        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1010        local = expression.args.get("local")
1011        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1012        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1013        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1014        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1015        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1016
1017    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1018        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1019        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1020        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1021
1022    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1023        if expression.args.get("default"):
1024            property = "DEFAULT"
1025        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1026            property = "ON"
1027        else:
1028            property = "OFF"
1029        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1030
1031    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1032        if expression.args.get("no"):
1033            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1034        if expression.args.get("default"):
1035            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1036
1037        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1038        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1039
1040    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1041        default = expression.args.get("default")
1042        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1043        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1044        if default or minimum or maximum:
1045            if default:
1046                prop = "DEFAULT"
1047            elif minimum:
1048                prop = "MINIMUM"
1049            else:
1050                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1051            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1052        units = expression.args.get("units")
1053        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1054        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1055
1056    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1057        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1058        always = expression.args.get("always")
1059        default = expression.args.get("default")
1060        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1061        never = expression.args.get("never")
1062
1063        if autotemp is not None:
1064            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1065        elif always:
1066            prop = "ALWAYS"
1067        elif default:
1068            prop = "DEFAULT"
1069        elif manual:
1070            prop = "MANUAL"
1071        elif never:
1072            prop = "NEVER"
1073        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1074
1075    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1076        no = expression.args.get("no")
1077        no = " NO" if no else ""
1078        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1079        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1080
1081        for_ = ""
1082        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1083            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1084        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1085            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1086        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1087            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1088        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1089
1090    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1091        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1092        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1093        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1094        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1095        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1096        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1097
1098    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1099        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1100        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1101        statistics_sql = ""
1102        if statistics is not None:
1103            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1104        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1105
1106    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1107        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1108
1109        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1110            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1111        else:
1112            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1113
1114        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1115        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1116        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1117
1118        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1119
1120        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1121        partition_sql = (
1122            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1123        )
1124        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1125        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1126        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1127        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1128        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1129        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1130        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1131
1132    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1133        return self.prepend_ctes(
1134            expression,
1135            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1136        )
1137
1138    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1139        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1140
1141    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1143
1144    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1145        return expression.name.upper()
1146
1147    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1148        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1149        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1150        if constraint:
1151            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1152        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1153        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1154        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1155        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1156        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1157        if expressions:
1158            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1159        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1160
1161    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1162        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1163
1164    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1165        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1166        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1167        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1168        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1169        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1170        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1171        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1172        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1173        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1174        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1175        null = expression.args.get("null")
1176        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1177        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1178
1179    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1180        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1181
1182    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1183        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1184        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1185        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1186        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1187
1188    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1189        table = ".".join(
1190            part
1191            for part in [
1192                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1193                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1194                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1195            ]
1196            if part
1197        )
1198
1199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1200        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1201        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1202        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1203        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1204        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1205        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1206        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1207        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1208        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1209
1210        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1211
1212    def tablesample_sql(
1213        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1214    ) -> str:
1215        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1216            table = expression.this.copy()
1217            table.set("alias", None)
1218            this = self.sql(table)
1219            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1220        else:
1221            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222            alias = ""
1223        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1224        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1225        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1226        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1227        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1228        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1229        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1230        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1231        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1232        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1233        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1234        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1235        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1236            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1237        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1238        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1239        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1240        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1241
1242    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1243        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1244
1245        if expression.this:
1246            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1248            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1249            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1250            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1251            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1252
1253        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1254        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1255        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1256        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1257        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1258        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1259
1260    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1261        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1262
1263    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1266        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1267        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1268        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1269        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1270        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1271        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1272
1273    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1274        args = self.expressions(expression)
1275        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1276        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1277        values = (
1278            f"({values})"
1279            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1280            else values
1281        )
1282        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1283
1284    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1285        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1286
1287    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1288        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1289        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1290        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1291
1292    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1293        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1294
1295    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1296        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1297
1298        if expression.args.get("all"):
1299            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1300
1301        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1302        grouping_sets = (
1303            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1304        )
1305
1306        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1307        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1308            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1309        else:
1310            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1311            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1312
1313        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1314        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1315            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1316        else:
1317            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1318            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1319
1320        groupings = csv(
1321            grouping_sets,
1322            cube_sql,
1323            rollup_sql,
1324            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1325            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1326        )
1327
1328        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1329            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1330
1331        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1332
1333    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1334        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1335        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1336
1337    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1338        op_sql = " ".join(
1339            op
1340            for op in (
1341                expression.method,
1342                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1343                expression.side,
1344                expression.kind,
1345                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1346            )
1347            if op
1348        )
1349        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1350        using = expression.args.get("using")
1351
1352        if not on_sql and using:
1353            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1354
1355        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1356
1357        if on_sql:
1358            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1359            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1360            if using:
1361                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1362            else:
1363                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1364        elif not op_sql:
1365            return f", {this_sql}"
1366
1367        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1368        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1369
1370    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1372        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1373        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1374
1375    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1377
1378        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1379            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1380
1381        if expression.args.get("view"):
1382            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1383            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1384            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1385            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1386            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1387            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1388
1389        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1390        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1391        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1392
1393    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        args = ", ".join(
1396            sql
1397            for sql in (
1398                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1399                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1400            )
1401            if sql
1402        )
1403        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1404
1405    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1407        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1408
1409    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1410        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1411        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1413        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1414        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1415        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1416        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1417        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1418
1419    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1420        expressions = (
1421            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1422        )
1423        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1424        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1425
1426    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1427        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1428
1429    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1430        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1431            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1432            return ""
1433
1434        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1435        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1436        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1437        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1438
1439        if wait is not None:
1440            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1441                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1442            else:
1443                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1444
1445        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1446
1447    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1448        text = expression.this or ""
1449        if expression.is_string:
1450            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1451        return text
1452
1453    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1454        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1455        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1456            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1457        elif self.pretty:
1458            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1459        return text
1460
1461    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1462        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1463        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1464        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1465        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1466        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1467        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1468        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1469        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1470        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1471        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1472        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1473
1474    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1475        return "NULL"
1476
1477    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1478        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1479
1480    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1482        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1483        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1484
1485    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1486        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1487
1488    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1489        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1490
1491    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1492        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1493
1494    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1495        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1496        asc = not desc
1497
1498        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1499        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1500        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1501        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1502        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1503
1504        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1505        nulls_sort_change = ""
1506        if nulls_first and (
1507            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1508        ):
1509            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1510        elif (
1511            nulls_last
1512            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1513            and not nulls_are_last
1514        ):
1515            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1516
1517        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1518            self.unsupported(
1519                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1520            )
1521            nulls_sort_change = ""
1522
1523        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1524
1525    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1526        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1527        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1528        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1529        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1530        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1531        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1532        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1533        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1534        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1535        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1536        definition_sqls = [
1537            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1538            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1539        ]
1540        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1541        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1542        body = "".join(
1543            (
1544                partition,
1545                order,
1546                measures,
1547                rows,
1548                after,
1549                pattern,
1550                define,
1551            )
1552        )
1553        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1554        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1555        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1556
1557    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1558        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1559
1560        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1561        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1562
1563        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1564            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1565        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1566            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1567
1568        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1569
1570        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1571            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1572            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1573            else []
1574        )
1575
1576        return csv(
1577            *sqls,
1578            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1579            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1580            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1581            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1582            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1583            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1584            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1585            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1586            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1587            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1588            sep="",
1589        )
1590
1591    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1592        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1593    ) -> t.List[str]:
1594        return [
1595            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1596            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1597        ]
1598
1599    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1600        return [
1601            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1602            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1603            if expression.args.get("windows")
1604            else "",
1605            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1606            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1607            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1608        ]
1609
1610    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1611        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1612        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1613        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1614
1615    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1616        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1617        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1618        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1620        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1621        top = (
1622            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1623            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1624            else ""
1625        )
1626
1627        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1628
1629        if kind:
1630            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1631                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1632            else:
1633                if kind == "STRUCT":
1634                    expressions = self.expressions(
1635                        sqls=[
1636                            self.sql(
1637                                exp.Struct(
1638                                    expressions=[
1639                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1640                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1641                                        )
1642                                        for e in expression.expressions
1643                                    ]
1644                                )
1645                            )
1646                        ]
1647                    )
1648                kind = ""
1649
1650        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1651        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1652            expression,
1653            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1654            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1655            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1656        )
1657        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1658
1659    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1661        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1662        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1663        return f"{this}{sql}"
1664
1665    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1666        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1667
1668    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1669        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1670        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1671        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1672        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1673        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1674
1675    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1678        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1679
1680    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1682        kind = expression.text("kind")
1683        if kind:
1684            kind = f"{kind}."
1685        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1686
1687    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1688        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1689
1690    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1691        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1692        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1693
1694        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1695        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1696
1697        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1698        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1699
1700    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1701        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1702        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1703
1704    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1705        return self.prepend_ctes(
1706            expression,
1707            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1708        )
1709
1710    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1711        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1712        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1713        return f"UNION{kind}"
1714
1715    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1716        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1717        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1718        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1719            columns = alias.columns
1720            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1721        else:
1722            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1723        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1724        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1725        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1726        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1727        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1728
1729    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1730        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1731        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1732
1733    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1736        order = expression.args.get("order")
1737        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1738        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1739        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1740        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1741
1742        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1743
1744        first = expression.args.get("first")
1745        if first is None:
1746            first = ""
1747        else:
1748            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1749
1750        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1751            return f"{this} {alias}"
1752
1753        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1754        return f"{this} ({args})"
1755
1756    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1757        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1758        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1759
1760    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1761        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1762        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1763        end = (
1764            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1765            or "CURRENT ROW"
1766        )
1767        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1768
1769    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1772        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1773
1774    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1776        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1777        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1778        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1779
1780    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1781        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1782        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1783
1784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1785
1786    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1787        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1788
1789    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1790        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1791
1792    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1794        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1795            this = self.wrap(this)
1796        return f"ANY {this}"
1797
1798    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1799        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1800
1801    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1804
1805        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1806            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1807            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1808
1809        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1810
1811        if default:
1812            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1813
1814        statements.append("END")
1815
1816        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1817            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1818
1819        return " ".join(statements)
1820
1821    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1824        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1825
1826    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1827        order = expression.args.get("order")
1828        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1829        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1830
1831    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1833        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1834        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1835
1836    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1837        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1838
1839        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1840            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1841        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1842            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1843        else:
1844            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1845
1846    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1847        expressions = expression.expressions
1848        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1849            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1850        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1851
1852    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1853        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1854        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1855
1856    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1858        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1859        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1860        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1861        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1862        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1863        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1864        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1865
1866    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1867        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1868        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1869        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1870        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1871
1872    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1873        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1874
1875    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1876        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1877        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1878        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1879
1880    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1881        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1882
1883    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1884        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1885        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1886        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1887        if unique_keys is not None:
1888            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1889        else:
1890            unique_keys = ""
1891        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1892        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1893        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1894        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1895        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1896        return self.func(
1897            "JSON_OBJECT",
1898            *expression.expressions,
1899            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1900        )
1901
1902    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1904        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1905        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1906        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1907        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1908        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1909
1910    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1912        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1913        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1914        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1915        with_ = (
1916            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1917            if expressions
1918            else ""
1919        )
1920        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1921
1922    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1923        query = expression.args.get("query")
1924        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1925        field = expression.args.get("field")
1926        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1927
1928        if query:
1929            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1930        elif unnest:
1931            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1932        elif field:
1933            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1934        else:
1935            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1936
1937        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1938
1939    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1940        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1941
1942    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1943        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1944        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1945            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1946        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1947
1948        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1949            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1950            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1951
1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953        if this:
1954            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1955            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1956
1957        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1958
1959    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1960        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1961
1962    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1965        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1966        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1967        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1968        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1969
1970    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1971        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1972
1973    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1974        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1975            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1976        else:
1977            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1978            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1979
1980        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1981
1982    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1983        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1984        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1986        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1987
1988    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1989        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1990
1991    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1992        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1993        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1994        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1995
1996    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1998
1999    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2001        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2002        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2003
2004    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2005        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2006
2007    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2008        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2009
2010    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2011        if not self.pretty:
2012            return self.binary(expression, op)
2013
2014        sqls = tuple(
2015            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2016            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2017        )
2018
2019        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2020        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2021
2022    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2023        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2024
2025    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2026        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2027
2028    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2029        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2030
2031    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2032        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2033
2034    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2035        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2036
2037    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2038        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2039
2040    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2041        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2042        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2043        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2044
2045    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2046        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2048
2049    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2050        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2051
2052    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2053        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2054
2055    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2058        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2059        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2060        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2061
2062    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2064        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2065        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2066        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2067        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2068        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2069        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2070        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2071        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2072
2073    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2074        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2075        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2076        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2077        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2078
2079        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2080            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2081
2082        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2083
2084    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2085        return "BEGIN"
2086
2087    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2088        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2089        if chain is not None:
2090            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2091
2092        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2093
2094    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2095        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2096        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2097        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2098
2099    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101
2102        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2103        if dtype:
2104            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2105            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2106            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2107            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2108            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2109
2110        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2111        if default:
2112            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2113
2114        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2115            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2116
2117        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2118
2119    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2120        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2121            # Remove db from tables
2122            expression = expression.transform(
2123                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2124            )
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2127
2128    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2129        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2130
2131        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2132            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2133        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2134            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2135        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2136            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2137        else:
2138            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2139
2140        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2141        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2142
2143    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2144        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2145        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2146        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2147
2148    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2151        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2152
2153        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2154        if enforced is not None:
2155            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2156
2157        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2158
2159    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2160        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2161        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2162
2163        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2164        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2165        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2166
2167    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2168        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2169
2170    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2171        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2172
2173    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2174        return self.sql(
2175            exp.Cast(
2176                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2177                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2178            )
2179        )
2180
2181    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2183
2184    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2185        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2186            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2187        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2188
2189    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2190        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2191
2192    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2193        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2194
2195    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2196        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2197
2198    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2199        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2200
2201    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2203
2204    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2206
2207    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2208        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2209
2210    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2212
2213    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2215
2216    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2218
2219    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2221
2222    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2223        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2224            return self.sql(
2225                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2226            )
2227        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2228
2229    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2230        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2231
2232    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2233        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2234
2235    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2236        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2237
2238    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2239        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2240
2241    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2242        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2243
2244    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2246
2247    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2248        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2249
2250    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2251        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2252
2253    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2254        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2255
2256    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2258
2259    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2260        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2261
2262    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2263        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2264
2265    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2267
2268    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2269        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2270
2271    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2272        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2273        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2275        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2276        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2277
2278    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2279        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2280        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2281
2282    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2283        args = []
2284        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2285            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2286                for value in arg_value:
2287                    args.append(value)
2288            else:
2289                args.append(arg_value)
2290
2291        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2292
2293    def func(
2294        self,
2295        name: str,
2296        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2297        prefix: str = "(",
2298        suffix: str = ")",
2299    ) -> str:
2300        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2301
2302    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2303        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2304        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2305            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2306        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2307
2308    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2309        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2310
2311    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2312        return format_time(
2313            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2314        )
2315
2316    def expressions(
2317        self,
2318        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2319        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2320        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2321        flat: bool = False,
2322        indent: bool = True,
2323        skip_first: bool = False,
2324        sep: str = ", ",
2325        prefix: str = "",
2326    ) -> str:
2327        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2328
2329        if not expressions:
2330            return ""
2331
2332        if flat:
2333            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2334
2335        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2336
2337        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2338        pad = " " * self.pad
2339        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2340
2341        result_sqls = []
2342        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2343            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2344            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2345
2346            if self.pretty:
2347                if self.leading_comma:
2348                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2349                else:
2350                    result_sqls.append(
2351                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2352                    )
2353            else:
2354                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2355
2356        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2357        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2358
2359    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2360        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2361        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2362        if flat:
2363            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2364        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2365
2366    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2367        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2368        if not property_name:
2369            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2370        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2371
2372    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        op = self.seg(op)
2375        return self.query_modifiers(
2376            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2377        )
2378
2379    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2380        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2381
2382    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2383        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2384
2385    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2388        expressions = (
2389            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2390        )
2391        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2392
2393    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2395        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2396        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2397
2398    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2400
2401    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2402        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2403        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2404        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2405        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2406
2407        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2408        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2409            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2410            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2411                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2412        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2413            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2414                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2415            else:
2416                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2417        else:
2418            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2419        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2420
2421    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2423        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2424        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2425        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2426
2427    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2428        if expression.args.get("format"):
2429            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2430
2431        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2432
2433    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2436        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2437        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2438        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2439
2440    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2442        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2443        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2444        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2445
2446    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2447        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2448
2449    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2450        return ""
2451
2452    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2453        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2454        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2455        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2456        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2457        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2458
2459    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2462
2463        if having:
2464            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2465
2466        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2467
2468
2469def cached_generator(
2470    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2471) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2472    """Returns a cached generator."""
2473    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2474    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2475    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 145    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 148    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 149
 150    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 151    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 152
 153    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 154    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 155
 156    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 157        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 158        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 159        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 160        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 161        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 162        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 163        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 164    }
 165
 166    STAR_MAPPING = {
 167        "except": "EXCEPT",
 168        "replace": "REPLACE",
 169    }
 170
 171    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 172        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 173        "seconds": "second",
 174        "minutes": "minute",
 175        "hours": "hour",
 176        "days": "day",
 177        "weeks": "week",
 178        "months": "month",
 179        "quarters": "quarter",
 180        "years": "year",
 181    }
 182
 183    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 184
 185    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 186
 187    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 188
 189    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 190        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 191        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 195        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 208        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 209        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 210        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 217        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 218        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 220        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 221        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 222        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 224        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 226        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 239        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 243        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 244        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245    }
 246
 247    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 248    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 249
 250    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 251    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 252        exp.Select,
 253        exp.From,
 254        exp.Where,
 255        exp.With,
 256    )
 257
 258    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 259    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 260        exp.Column,
 261        exp.Literal,
 262        exp.Neg,
 263        exp.Paren,
 264    )
 265
 266    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 267
 268    # Autofilled
 269    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 270    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 271    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 272    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 273    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 274    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 275    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 276    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 277    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 278    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 279
 280    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 281
 282    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 283    QUOTE_START = "'"
 284    QUOTE_END = "'"
 285    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 286    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 287    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 288    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 289
 290    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 291    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 292    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 293    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 294    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 295    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 296    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 297
 298    __slots__ = (
 299        "pretty",
 300        "identify",
 301        "normalize",
 302        "pad",
 303        "_indent",
 304        "normalize_functions",
 305        "unsupported_level",
 306        "max_unsupported",
 307        "leading_comma",
 308        "max_text_width",
 309        "comments",
 310        "unsupported_messages",
 311        "_escaped_quote_end",
 312        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 313        "_cache",
 314    )
 315
 316    def __init__(
 317        self,
 318        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 319        identify: str | bool = False,
 320        normalize: bool = False,
 321        pad: int = 2,
 322        indent: int = 2,
 323        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 324        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 325        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 326        leading_comma: bool = False,
 327        max_text_width: int = 80,
 328        comments: bool = True,
 329    ):
 330        import sqlglot
 331
 332        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 333        self.identify = identify
 334        self.normalize = normalize
 335        self.pad = pad
 336        self._indent = indent
 337        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 338        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 339        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 340        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 341        self.comments = comments
 342
 343        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 344        self.normalize_functions = (
 345            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 346        )
 347
 348        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 349        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 350        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 351        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 352
 353    def generate(
 354        self,
 355        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 356        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 357    ) -> str:
 358        """
 359        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 360
 361        Args:
 362            expression: The syntax tree.
 363            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 364                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 365
 366        Returns:
 367            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 368        """
 369        if cache is not None:
 370            self._cache = cache
 371
 372        self.unsupported_messages = []
 373        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 374        self._cache = None
 375
 376        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 377            return sql
 378
 379        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 380            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 381                logger.warning(msg)
 382        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 383            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 384
 385        if self.pretty:
 386            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 387        return sql
 388
 389    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 390        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 391            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 392        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 393
 394    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 395        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 396
 397    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 398        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 399
 400    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 401        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 402        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 403        return comment
 404
 405    def maybe_comment(
 406        self,
 407        sql: str,
 408        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 409        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 410    ) -> str:
 411        comments = (
 412            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 413            if self.comments
 414            else None
 415        )
 416
 417        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 418            return sql
 419
 420        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 421        comments_sql = sep.join(
 422            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 423        )
 424
 425        if not comments_sql:
 426            return sql
 427
 428        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 429            return (
 430                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 431                if sql[0].isspace()
 432                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 433            )
 434
 435        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 436
 437    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 438        this_sql = self.indent(
 439            self.sql(expression)
 440            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 441            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 442            level=1,
 443            pad=0,
 444        )
 445        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 446
 447    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 448        original = self.identify
 449        self.identify = False
 450        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 451        self.identify = original
 452        return result
 453
 454    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 455        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 456            return name.upper()
 457        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 458            return name.lower()
 459        return name
 460
 461    def indent(
 462        self,
 463        sql: str,
 464        level: int = 0,
 465        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 466        skip_first: bool = False,
 467        skip_last: bool = False,
 468    ) -> str:
 469        if not self.pretty:
 470            return sql
 471
 472        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 473        lines = sql.split("\n")
 474
 475        return "\n".join(
 476            line
 477            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 478            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 479            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 480        )
 481
 482    def sql(
 483        self,
 484        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 485        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 486        comment: bool = True,
 487    ) -> str:
 488        if not expression:
 489            return ""
 490
 491        if isinstance(expression, str):
 492            return expression
 493
 494        if key:
 495            value = expression.args.get(key)
 496            if value:
 497                return self.sql(value)
 498            return ""
 499
 500        if self._cache is not None:
 501            expression_id = hash(expression)
 502
 503            if expression_id in self._cache:
 504                return self._cache[expression_id]
 505
 506        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 507
 508        if callable(transform):
 509            sql = transform(self, expression)
 510        elif transform:
 511            sql = transform
 512        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 513            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 514
 515            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 516                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 517            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 518                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 519            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 520                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 521            else:
 522                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 523        else:
 524            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 525
 526        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 527
 528        if self._cache is not None:
 529            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 530        return sql
 531
 532    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 533        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 534        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 535        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 536
 537    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 538        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 540        options = expression.args.get("options")
 541        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 542        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 543        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 544        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 546
 547    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 548        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 549            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 550        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 551        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 552
 553    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 554        return ".".join(
 555            self.sql(part)
 556            for part in (
 557                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 558                expression.args.get("db"),
 559                expression.args.get("table"),
 560                expression.args.get("this"),
 561            )
 562            if part
 563        )
 564
 565    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 569        return f"{position}{this}"
 570
 571    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 572        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 574        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 575        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 576        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 577        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 578        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 579        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 580
 581        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 582
 583    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 585        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 586        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 587
 588    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 589        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 590
 591    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 592        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 593            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 594        else:
 595            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 596
 597        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 598
 599    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 600        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 601    ) -> str:
 602        this = ""
 603        if expression.this is not None:
 604            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 605            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 606
 607        start = expression.args.get("start")
 608        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 609        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 610        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 611        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 612        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 613        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 614        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 615        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 616        cycle_sql = ""
 617
 618        if cycle is not None:
 619            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 620            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 621
 622        sequence_opts = ""
 623        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 624            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 625            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 626
 627        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 628        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 629
 630        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 631
 632    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 634
 635    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 636        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 637        if desc is not None:
 638            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 639        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 640
 641    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 644        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 645
 646    def createable_sql(
 647        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 648    ) -> str:
 649        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 650
 651    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 653        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 654        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 655
 656        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 657
 658        properties_sql = ""
 659        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 660            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 661        ):
 662            properties_sql = self.sql(
 663                exp.Properties(
 664                    expressions=[
 665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 666                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 667                    ]
 668                )
 669            )
 670
 671        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 672        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 673        if expression_sql:
 674            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 675
 676            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 677                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 678                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 679                        exp.Properties(
 680                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 681                        ),
 682                        wrapped=False,
 683                    )
 684                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 685                else:
 686                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 687
 688        postindex_props_sql = ""
 689        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 690            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 691                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 692                wrapped=False,
 693                prefix=" ",
 694            )
 695
 696        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 697        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 698        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 699
 700        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 701        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 702
 703        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 704        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 705            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 706                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 707                sep=" ",
 708                prefix=" ",
 709                wrapped=False,
 710            )
 711
 712        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 713
 714        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 716            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 717                exp.Properties(
 718                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 719                ),
 720                sep=" ",
 721                prefix=" ",
 722                wrapped=False,
 723            )
 724
 725        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 726        no_schema_binding = (
 727            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 728        )
 729
 730        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 731        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 732
 733        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 735
 736    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 739
 740        if when:
 741            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 742            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 743            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 744
 745        return f"CLONE {this}"
 746
 747    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 748        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 749
 750    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 751        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 752        if with_:
 753            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 754        return sql
 755
 756    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 757        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 758        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 759
 760        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 761
 762    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 764        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 765
 766    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 767        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 768        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 769        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 770        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 771
 772    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 774        if self.BIT_START:
 775            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 776        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 777
 778    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        if self.HEX_START:
 781            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 782        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 783
 784    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        if self.BYTE_START:
 787            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 788        return this
 789
 790    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 791        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 792        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 793
 794    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 797        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 798        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 799
 800    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 801        type_value = expression.this
 802        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 803        nested = ""
 804        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 805        values = ""
 806        if interior:
 807            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 808                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 809                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 810                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 811                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 812                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 813            else:
 814                nested = f"({interior})"
 815
 816        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 817
 818    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 819        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 820        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 821        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 822        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 823
 824    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 827        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 828        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 829        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 831        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 832        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 833        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 834        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 836
 837    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 840        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 841        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 842        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 843        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 844        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 845        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 846        return (
 847            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 848        )
 849
 850    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 851        return self.prepend_ctes(
 852            expression,
 853            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 854        )
 855
 856    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 857        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 858
 859    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 860        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 861        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 862        count = expression.args.get("count")
 863        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 864        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 865            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 866        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 867        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 868
 869    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 872        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 873
 874    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 875        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 876            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 877        return ""
 878
 879    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 880        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 881        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 882        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 883        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 884        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 885        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 886        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 887        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 888        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 889        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 890        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 891        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 892        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 893        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 894
 895    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 896        text = expression.name
 897        lower = text.lower()
 898        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 899        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 900        if (
 901            expression.quoted
 902            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 903            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 904            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 905        ):
 906            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 907        return text
 908
 909    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 910        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 911        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 912        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 913        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 914        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 915
 916    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 917        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 918        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 919
 920    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 921        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 922
 923    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 924        root_properties = []
 925        with_properties = []
 926
 927        for p in expression.expressions:
 928            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 929            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 930                with_properties.append(p)
 931            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 932                root_properties.append(p)
 933
 934        return self.root_properties(
 935            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 936        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 937
 938    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 939        if properties.expressions:
 940            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 941        return ""
 942
 943    def properties(
 944        self,
 945        properties: exp.Properties,
 946        prefix: str = "",
 947        sep: str = ", ",
 948        suffix: str = "",
 949        wrapped: bool = True,
 950    ) -> str:
 951        if properties.expressions:
 952            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 953            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 954            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 955        return ""
 956
 957    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 958        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 959
 960    def locate_properties(
 961        self, properties: exp.Properties
 962    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 963        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 964            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 965        }
 966
 967        for p in properties.expressions:
 968            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 969            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 982                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 983            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 984                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 985
 986        return properties_locs
 987
 988    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 989        property_cls = expression.__class__
 990        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 991            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 992
 993        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 994        if not property_name:
 995            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 996
 997        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 998
 999    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1000        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1001        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1002        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1003
1004    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1007        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1008
1009    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1010        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1011        local = expression.args.get("local")
1012        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1013        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1014        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1015        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1016        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1017
1018    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1019        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1021        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1022
1023    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("default"):
1025            property = "DEFAULT"
1026        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1027            property = "ON"
1028        else:
1029            property = "OFF"
1030        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1031
1032    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1033        if expression.args.get("no"):
1034            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1035        if expression.args.get("default"):
1036            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1037
1038        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1039        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1040
1041    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1042        default = expression.args.get("default")
1043        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1044        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1045        if default or minimum or maximum:
1046            if default:
1047                prop = "DEFAULT"
1048            elif minimum:
1049                prop = "MINIMUM"
1050            else:
1051                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1052            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1053        units = expression.args.get("units")
1054        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1055        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1056
1057    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1058        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1059        always = expression.args.get("always")
1060        default = expression.args.get("default")
1061        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1062        never = expression.args.get("never")
1063
1064        if autotemp is not None:
1065            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1066        elif always:
1067            prop = "ALWAYS"
1068        elif default:
1069            prop = "DEFAULT"
1070        elif manual:
1071            prop = "MANUAL"
1072        elif never:
1073            prop = "NEVER"
1074        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1075
1076    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1077        no = expression.args.get("no")
1078        no = " NO" if no else ""
1079        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1080        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1081
1082        for_ = ""
1083        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1084            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1085        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1086            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1087        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1088            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1089        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1090
1091    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1092        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1093        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1094        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1095        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1096        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1097        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1098
1099    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1100        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1101        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1102        statistics_sql = ""
1103        if statistics is not None:
1104            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1105        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1106
1107    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1108        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1109
1110        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1111            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1112        else:
1113            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1114
1115        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1116        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1117        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1118
1119        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1120
1121        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1122        partition_sql = (
1123            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1124        )
1125        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1126        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1127        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1128        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1129        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1130        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1131        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1132
1133    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1134        return self.prepend_ctes(
1135            expression,
1136            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1137        )
1138
1139    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1140        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1141
1142    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1143        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1144
1145    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1146        return expression.name.upper()
1147
1148    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1149        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1150        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1151        if constraint:
1152            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1153        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1154        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1155        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1156        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1157        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1158        if expressions:
1159            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1160        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1161
1162    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1163        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1164
1165    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1166        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1167        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1168        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1169        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1170        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1171        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1172        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1173        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1174        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1175        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1176        null = expression.args.get("null")
1177        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1178        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1179
1180    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1181        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1182
1183    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1184        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1185        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1186        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1187        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1188
1189    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1190        table = ".".join(
1191            part
1192            for part in [
1193                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1194                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1195                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1196            ]
1197            if part
1198        )
1199
1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1201        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1202        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1203        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1204        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1205        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1206        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1207        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1208        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1209        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1210
1211        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1212
1213    def tablesample_sql(
1214        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1215    ) -> str:
1216        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1217            table = expression.this.copy()
1218            table.set("alias", None)
1219            this = self.sql(table)
1220            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1221        else:
1222            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223            alias = ""
1224        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1225        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1226        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1227        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1228        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1229        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1230        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1231        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1232        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1233        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1234        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1235        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1236        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1237            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1238        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1239        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1240        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1241        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1242
1243    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1245
1246        if expression.this:
1247            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1249            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1250            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1251            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1252            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1253
1254        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1255        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1256        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1257        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1258        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1259        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1260
1261    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1262        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1263
1264    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1267        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1268        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1269        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1270        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1271        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1272        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1273
1274    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1275        args = self.expressions(expression)
1276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1277        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1278        values = (
1279            f"({values})"
1280            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1281            else values
1282        )
1283        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1284
1285    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1286        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1287
1288    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1289        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1290        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1291        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1292
1293    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1294        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1295
1296    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1297        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1298
1299        if expression.args.get("all"):
1300            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1301
1302        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1303        grouping_sets = (
1304            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1305        )
1306
1307        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1308        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1309            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1310        else:
1311            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1312            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1313
1314        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1315        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1316            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1317        else:
1318            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1319            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1320
1321        groupings = csv(
1322            grouping_sets,
1323            cube_sql,
1324            rollup_sql,
1325            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1326            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1327        )
1328
1329        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1330            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1331
1332        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1333
1334    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1335        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1336        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1337
1338    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1339        op_sql = " ".join(
1340            op
1341            for op in (
1342                expression.method,
1343                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1344                expression.side,
1345                expression.kind,
1346                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1347            )
1348            if op
1349        )
1350        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1351        using = expression.args.get("using")
1352
1353        if not on_sql and using:
1354            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1355
1356        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357
1358        if on_sql:
1359            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1360            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1361            if using:
1362                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1363            else:
1364                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1365        elif not op_sql:
1366            return f", {this_sql}"
1367
1368        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1369        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1370
1371    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1373        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1374        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1375
1376    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378
1379        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1380            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1381
1382        if expression.args.get("view"):
1383            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1384            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1385            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1386            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1387            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1388            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1389
1390        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1391        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1392        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1393
1394    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        args = ", ".join(
1397            sql
1398            for sql in (
1399                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1400                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1401            )
1402            if sql
1403        )
1404        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1405
1406    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1408        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1409
1410    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1411        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1412        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1414        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1415        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1416        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1417        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1418        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1419
1420    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1421        expressions = (
1422            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1423        )
1424        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1425        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1426
1427    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1428        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1429
1430    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1431        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1432            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1436        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1437        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1438        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1439
1440        if wait is not None:
1441            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1442                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1443            else:
1444                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1445
1446        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1447
1448    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1449        text = expression.this or ""
1450        if expression.is_string:
1451            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1452        return text
1453
1454    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1455        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1456        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1457            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1458        elif self.pretty:
1459            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1460        return text
1461
1462    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1463        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1464        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1465        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1466        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1467        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1468        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1469        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1470        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1471        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1472        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1473        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1474
1475    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1476        return "NULL"
1477
1478    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1479        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1480
1481    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1484        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1485
1486    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1487        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1488
1489    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1490        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1491
1492    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1493        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1494
1495    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1496        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1497        asc = not desc
1498
1499        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1500        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1501        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1502        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1503        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1504
1505        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1506        nulls_sort_change = ""
1507        if nulls_first and (
1508            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1509        ):
1510            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1511        elif (
1512            nulls_last
1513            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1514            and not nulls_are_last
1515        ):
1516            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1517
1518        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1519            self.unsupported(
1520                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1521            )
1522            nulls_sort_change = ""
1523
1524        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1525
1526    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1527        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1528        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1529        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1530        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1531        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1532        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1533        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1534        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1535        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1536        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1537        definition_sqls = [
1538            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1539            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1540        ]
1541        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1542        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1543        body = "".join(
1544            (
1545                partition,
1546                order,
1547                measures,
1548                rows,
1549                after,
1550                pattern,
1551                define,
1552            )
1553        )
1554        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1555        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1556        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1557
1558    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1559        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1560
1561        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1562        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1563
1564        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1565            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1566        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1567            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1568
1569        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1570
1571        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1572            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1573            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1574            else []
1575        )
1576
1577        return csv(
1578            *sqls,
1579            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1580            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1581            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1582            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1583            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1584            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1585            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1586            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1587            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1588            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1589            sep="",
1590        )
1591
1592    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1593        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1594    ) -> t.List[str]:
1595        return [
1596            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1597            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1598        ]
1599
1600    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1601        return [
1602            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1603            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1604            if expression.args.get("windows")
1605            else "",
1606            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1607            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1608            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1609        ]
1610
1611    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1612        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1613        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1614        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1615
1616    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1617        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1618        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1619        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1620        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1621        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1622        top = (
1623            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1624            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1625            else ""
1626        )
1627
1628        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1629
1630        if kind:
1631            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1632                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1633            else:
1634                if kind == "STRUCT":
1635                    expressions = self.expressions(
1636                        sqls=[
1637                            self.sql(
1638                                exp.Struct(
1639                                    expressions=[
1640                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1641                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1642                                        )
1643                                        for e in expression.expressions
1644                                    ]
1645                                )
1646                            )
1647                        ]
1648                    )
1649                kind = ""
1650
1651        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1652        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1653            expression,
1654            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1655            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1656            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1657        )
1658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1659
1660    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1662        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1663        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1664        return f"{this}{sql}"
1665
1666    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1667        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1668
1669    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1670        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1671        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1672        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1673        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1674        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1675
1676    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1678        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1679        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1680
1681    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1683        kind = expression.text("kind")
1684        if kind:
1685            kind = f"{kind}."
1686        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1687
1688    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1689        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1690
1691    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1692        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1693        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1694
1695        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1696        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1697
1698        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1699        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1700
1701    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1702        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1703        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1704
1705    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1706        return self.prepend_ctes(
1707            expression,
1708            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1709        )
1710
1711    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1712        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1713        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1714        return f"UNION{kind}"
1715
1716    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1717        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1718        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1719        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1720            columns = alias.columns
1721            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1722        else:
1723            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1725        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1726        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1727        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1728        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1729
1730    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1731        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1732        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1733
1734    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1737        order = expression.args.get("order")
1738        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1739        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1741        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1742
1743        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1744
1745        first = expression.args.get("first")
1746        if first is None:
1747            first = ""
1748        else:
1749            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1750
1751        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1752            return f"{this} {alias}"
1753
1754        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1755        return f"{this} ({args})"
1756
1757    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1758        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1759        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1760
1761    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1763        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1764        end = (
1765            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1766            or "CURRENT ROW"
1767        )
1768        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1769
1770    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1773        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1774
1775    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1777        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1778        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1779        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1780
1781    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1782        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1783        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1784
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1786
1787    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1788        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1789
1790    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1791        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1792
1793    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1796            this = self.wrap(this)
1797        return f"ANY {this}"
1798
1799    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1800        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1801
1802    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1805
1806        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1807            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1808            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1809
1810        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1811
1812        if default:
1813            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1814
1815        statements.append("END")
1816
1817        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1818            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1819
1820        return " ".join(statements)
1821
1822    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1825        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1826
1827    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1828        order = expression.args.get("order")
1829        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1830        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1831
1832    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1834        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1835        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1836
1837    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1838        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1839
1840        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1841            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1842        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1843            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1844        else:
1845            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1846
1847    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1848        expressions = expression.expressions
1849        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1850            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1851        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1852
1853    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1854        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1855        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1856
1857    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1859        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1860        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1861        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1862        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1863        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1864        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1865        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1866
1867    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1868        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1870        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1871        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1872
1873    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1874        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1875
1876    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1877        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1878        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1879        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1880
1881    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1882        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1883
1884    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1885        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1886        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1887        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1888        if unique_keys is not None:
1889            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1890        else:
1891            unique_keys = ""
1892        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1893        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1894        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1895        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1896        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1897        return self.func(
1898            "JSON_OBJECT",
1899            *expression.expressions,
1900            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1901        )
1902
1903    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1906        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1907        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1908        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1909        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1910
1911    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1914        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1915        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1916        with_ = (
1917            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1918            if expressions
1919            else ""
1920        )
1921        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1922
1923    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1924        query = expression.args.get("query")
1925        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1926        field = expression.args.get("field")
1927        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1928
1929        if query:
1930            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1931        elif unnest:
1932            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1933        elif field:
1934            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1935        else:
1936            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1937
1938        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1939
1940    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1941        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1942
1943    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1944        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1945        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1946            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1947        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1948
1949        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1950            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1951            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1952
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954        if this:
1955            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1956            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1957
1958        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1959
1960    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1961        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1962
1963    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1966        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1967        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1968        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1969        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1970
1971    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1972        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1973
1974    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1975        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1976            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1977        else:
1978            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1979            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1980
1981        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1982
1983    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1984        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1985        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1987        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1988
1989    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1990        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1991
1992    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1993        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1994        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1996
1997    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1998        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1999
2000    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2003        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2004
2005    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2007
2008    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2009        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2010
2011    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2012        if not self.pretty:
2013            return self.binary(expression, op)
2014
2015        sqls = tuple(
2016            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2017            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2018        )
2019
2020        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2021        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2022
2023    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2024        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2025
2026    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2027        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2028
2029    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2030        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2031
2032    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2033        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2034
2035    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2036        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2037
2038    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2039        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2040
2041    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2042        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2043        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2044        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2045
2046    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2047        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2048        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2049
2050    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2051        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2052
2053    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2054        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2055
2056    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2059        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2060        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2061        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2062
2063    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2066        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2067        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2068        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2069        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2070        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2071        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2072        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2073
2074    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2076        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2077        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2078        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2079
2080        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2081            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2082
2083        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2084
2085    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2086        return "BEGIN"
2087
2088    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2089        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2090        if chain is not None:
2091            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2092
2093        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2094
2095    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2096        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2097        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2098        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2099
2100    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102
2103        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2104        if dtype:
2105            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2106            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2107            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2108            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2109            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2110
2111        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2112        if default:
2113            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2114
2115        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2116            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2117
2118        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2119
2120    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2121        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2122            # Remove db from tables
2123            expression = expression.transform(
2124                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2125            )
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2128
2129    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2130        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2131
2132        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2133            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2134        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2135            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2136        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2137            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2138        else:
2139            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2140
2141        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2142        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2143
2144    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2145        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2146        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2147        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2148
2149    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2152        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2153
2154        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2155        if enforced is not None:
2156            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2157
2158        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2159
2160    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2161        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2162        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2163
2164        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2165        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2166        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2167
2168    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2169        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2170
2171    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2172        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2173
2174    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2175        return self.sql(
2176            exp.Cast(
2177                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2178                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2179            )
2180        )
2181
2182    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2184
2185    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2186        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2187            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2188        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2189
2190    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2192
2193    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2194        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2195
2196    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2197        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2198
2199    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2200        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2201
2202    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2203        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2204
2205    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2206        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2207
2208    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2209        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2210
2211    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2212        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2213
2214    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2215        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2216
2217    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2218        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2219
2220    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2221        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2222
2223    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2224        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2225            return self.sql(
2226                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2227            )
2228        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2229
2230    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2231        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2232
2233    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2234        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2235
2236    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2237        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2238
2239    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2240        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2241
2242    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2243        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2244
2245    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2246        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2247
2248    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2249        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2250
2251    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2252        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2253
2254    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2255        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2256
2257    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2258        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2259
2260    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2261        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2262
2263    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2264        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2265
2266    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2267        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2268
2269    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2270        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2271
2272    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2273        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2274        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2277        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2278
2279    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2280        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2282
2283    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2284        args = []
2285        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2286            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2287                for value in arg_value:
2288                    args.append(value)
2289            else:
2290                args.append(arg_value)
2291
2292        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2293
2294    def func(
2295        self,
2296        name: str,
2297        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2298        prefix: str = "(",
2299        suffix: str = ")",
2300    ) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2302
2303    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2304        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2305        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2306            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2307        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2308
2309    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2310        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2311
2312    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2313        return format_time(
2314            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2315        )
2316
2317    def expressions(
2318        self,
2319        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2320        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2321        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2322        flat: bool = False,
2323        indent: bool = True,
2324        skip_first: bool = False,
2325        sep: str = ", ",
2326        prefix: str = "",
2327    ) -> str:
2328        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2329
2330        if not expressions:
2331            return ""
2332
2333        if flat:
2334            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2335
2336        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2337
2338        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2339        pad = " " * self.pad
2340        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2341
2342        result_sqls = []
2343        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2344            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2345            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2346
2347            if self.pretty:
2348                if self.leading_comma:
2349                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2350                else:
2351                    result_sqls.append(
2352                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2353                    )
2354            else:
2355                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2356
2357        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2358        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2359
2360    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2361        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2362        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2363        if flat:
2364            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2365        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2366
2367    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2368        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2369        if not property_name:
2370            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2371        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2372
2373    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        op = self.seg(op)
2376        return self.query_modifiers(
2377            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2378        )
2379
2380    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2381        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2382
2383    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2384        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2385
2386    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2389        expressions = (
2390            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2391        )
2392        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2393
2394    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2397        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2398
2399    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2400        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2401
2402    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2403        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2404        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2405        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2406        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2407
2408        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2409        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2410            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2411            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2412                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2413        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2414            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2415                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2416            else:
2417                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2418        else:
2419            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2420        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2421
2422    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2425        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2426        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2427
2428    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2429        if expression.args.get("format"):
2430            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2431
2432        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2433
2434    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2437        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2438        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2439        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2440
2441    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2444        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2445        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2446
2447    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2448        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2449
2450    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2451        return ""
2452
2453    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2454        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2455        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2456        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2457        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2458        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2459
2460    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2461        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2462        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2463
2464        if having:
2465            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2466
2467        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
316    def __init__(
317        self,
318        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
319        identify: str | bool = False,
320        normalize: bool = False,
321        pad: int = 2,
322        indent: int = 2,
323        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
324        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
325        max_unsupported: int = 3,
326        leading_comma: bool = False,
327        max_text_width: int = 80,
328        comments: bool = True,
329    ):
330        import sqlglot
331
332        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
333        self.identify = identify
334        self.normalize = normalize
335        self.pad = pad
336        self._indent = indent
337        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
338        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
339        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
340        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
341        self.comments = comments
342
343        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
344        self.normalize_functions = (
345            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
346        )
347
348        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
349        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
350        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
351        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
246    @classmethod
247    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
248        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
249
250        Args:
251            text: The text to check.
252            identify:
253                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
254                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
255
256        Returns:
257            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
258        """
259        if identify is True or identify == "always":
260            return True
261
262        if identify == "safe":
263            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
264
265        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
353    def generate(
354        self,
355        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
356        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
357    ) -> str:
358        """
359        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
360
361        Args:
362            expression: The syntax tree.
363            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
364                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
365
366        Returns:
367            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
368        """
369        if cache is not None:
370            self._cache = cache
371
372        self.unsupported_messages = []
373        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
374        self._cache = None
375
376        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
377            return sql
378
379        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
380            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
381                logger.warning(msg)
382        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
383            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
384
385        if self.pretty:
386            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
387        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
389    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
390        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
391            raise UnsupportedError(message)
392        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
394    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
395        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
397    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
398        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
400    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
401        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
402        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
403        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
405    def maybe_comment(
406        self,
407        sql: str,
408        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
409        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
410    ) -> str:
411        comments = (
412            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
413            if self.comments
414            else None
415        )
416
417        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
418            return sql
419
420        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
421        comments_sql = sep.join(
422            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
423        )
424
425        if not comments_sql:
426            return sql
427
428        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
429            return (
430                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
431                if sql[0].isspace()
432                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
433            )
434
435        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
437    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
438        this_sql = self.indent(
439            self.sql(expression)
440            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
441            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
442            level=1,
443            pad=0,
444        )
445        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
447    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
448        original = self.identify
449        self.identify = False
450        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
451        self.identify = original
452        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
454    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
455        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
456            return name.upper()
457        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
458            return name.lower()
459        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
461    def indent(
462        self,
463        sql: str,
464        level: int = 0,
465        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
466        skip_first: bool = False,
467        skip_last: bool = False,
468    ) -> str:
469        if not self.pretty:
470            return sql
471
472        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
473        lines = sql.split("\n")
474
475        return "\n".join(
476            line
477            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
478            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
479            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
480        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
482    def sql(
483        self,
484        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
485        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
486        comment: bool = True,
487    ) -> str:
488        if not expression:
489            return ""
490
491        if isinstance(expression, str):
492            return expression
493
494        if key:
495            value = expression.args.get(key)
496            if value:
497                return self.sql(value)
498            return ""
499
500        if self._cache is not None:
501            expression_id = hash(expression)
502
503            if expression_id in self._cache:
504                return self._cache[expression_id]
505
506        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
507
508        if callable(transform):
509            sql = transform(self, expression)
510        elif transform:
511            sql = transform
512        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
513            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
514
515            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
516                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
517            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
518                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
519            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
520                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
521            else:
522                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
523        else:
524            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
525
526        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
527
528        if self._cache is not None:
529            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
530        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
532    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
533        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
534        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
535        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
537    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
538        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
540        options = expression.args.get("options")
541        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
542        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
543        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
544        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
547    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
548        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
549            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
550        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
551        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
553    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
554        return ".".join(
555            self.sql(part)
556            for part in (
557                expression.args.get("catalog"),
558                expression.args.get("db"),
559                expression.args.get("table"),
560                expression.args.get("this"),
561            )
562            if part
563        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
565    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
569        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
571    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
572        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
574        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
575        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
576        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
577        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
578        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
579        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
580
581        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
583    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
585        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
586        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
588    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
589        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
591    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
592        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
593            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
594        else:
595            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
596
597        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
599    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
600        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
601    ) -> str:
602        this = ""
603        if expression.this is not None:
604            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
605            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
606
607        start = expression.args.get("start")
608        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
609        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
610        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
611        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
612        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
613        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
614        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
615        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
616        cycle_sql = ""
617
618        if cycle is not None:
619            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
620            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
621
622        sequence_opts = ""
623        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
624            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
625            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
626
627        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
628        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
629
630        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
632    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
633        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
635    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
636        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
637        if desc is not None:
638            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
639        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
641    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
644        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
646    def createable_sql(
647        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
648    ) -> str:
649        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
651    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
653        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
654        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
655
656        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
657
658        properties_sql = ""
659        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
660            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
661        ):
662            properties_sql = self.sql(
663                exp.Properties(
664                    expressions=[
665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
666                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
667                    ]
668                )
669            )
670
671        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
672        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
673        if expression_sql:
674            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
675
676            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
677                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
678                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
679                        exp.Properties(
680                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
681                        ),
682                        wrapped=False,
683                    )
684                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
685                else:
686                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
687
688        postindex_props_sql = ""
689        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
690            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
691                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
692                wrapped=False,
693                prefix=" ",
694            )
695
696        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
697        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
698        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
699
700        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
701        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
702
703        postcreate_props_sql = ""
704        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
705            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
706                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
707                sep=" ",
708                prefix=" ",
709                wrapped=False,
710            )
711
712        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
713
714        postexpression_props_sql = ""
715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
716            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
717                exp.Properties(
718                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
719                ),
720                sep=" ",
721                prefix=" ",
722                wrapped=False,
723            )
724
725        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
726        no_schema_binding = (
727            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
728        )
729
730        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
731        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
732
733        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
736    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
739
740        if when:
741            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
742            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
743            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
744
745        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
747    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
748        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
750    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
751        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
752        if with_:
753            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
754        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
756    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
757        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
758        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
759
760        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
762    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
764        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
766    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
767        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
768        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
769        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
770        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
772    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
774        if self.BIT_START:
775            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
776        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
778    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
780        if self.HEX_START:
781            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
782        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
784    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
786        if self.BYTE_START:
787            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
788        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
790    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
791        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
792        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
794    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
796        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
797        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
798        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
800    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
801        type_value = expression.this
802        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
803        nested = ""
804        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
805        values = ""
806        if interior:
807            if expression.args.get("nested"):
808                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
809                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
810                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
811                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
812                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
813            else:
814                nested = f"({interior})"
815
816        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
818    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
819        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
820        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
821        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
822        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
824    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
827        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
828        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
829        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
831        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
832        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
833        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
834        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
837    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        kind = expression.args["kind"]
840        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
841        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
842        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
843        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
844        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
845        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
846        return (
847            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
848        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
850    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
851        return self.prepend_ctes(
852            expression,
853            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
854        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
856    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
857        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
859    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
860        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
861        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
862        count = expression.args.get("count")
863        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
864        if expression.args.get("percent"):
865            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
866        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
867        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
869    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
871        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
872        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
874    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
875        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
876            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
877        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
879    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
880        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
881        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
882        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
883        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
884        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
885        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
886        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
887        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
888        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
889        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
890        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
891        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
892        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
893        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
895    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
896        text = expression.name
897        lower = text.lower()
898        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
899        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
900        if (
901            expression.quoted
902            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
903            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
904            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
905        ):
906            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
907        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
909    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
910        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
911        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
912        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
913        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
914        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
916    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
917        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
918        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
920    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
921        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
923    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
924        root_properties = []
925        with_properties = []
926
927        for p in expression.expressions:
928            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
929            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
930                with_properties.append(p)
931            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
932                root_properties.append(p)
933
934        return self.root_properties(
935            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
936        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
938    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
939        if properties.expressions:
940            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
941        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
943    def properties(
944        self,
945        properties: exp.Properties,
946        prefix: str = "",
947        sep: str = ", ",
948        suffix: str = "",
949        wrapped: bool = True,
950    ) -> str:
951        if properties.expressions:
952            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
953            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
954            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
955        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
957    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
958        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
960    def locate_properties(
961        self, properties: exp.Properties
962    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
963        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
964            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
965        }
966
967        for p in properties.expressions:
968            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
969            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
982                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
983            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
984                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
985
986        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
988    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
989        property_cls = expression.__class__
990        if property_cls == exp.Property:
991            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
992
993        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
994        if not property_name:
995            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
996
997        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
 999    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1000        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1001        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1002        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1004    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1007        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1009    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1010        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1011        local = expression.args.get("local")
1012        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1013        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1014        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1015        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1016        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1018    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1019        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1021        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1023    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("default"):
1025            property = "DEFAULT"
1026        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1027            property = "ON"
1028        else:
1029            property = "OFF"
1030        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1032    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1033        if expression.args.get("no"):
1034            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1035        if expression.args.get("default"):
1036            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1037
1038        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1039        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1041    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1042        default = expression.args.get("default")
1043        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1044        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1045        if default or minimum or maximum:
1046            if default:
1047                prop = "DEFAULT"
1048            elif minimum:
1049                prop = "MINIMUM"
1050            else:
1051                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1052            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1053        units = expression.args.get("units")
1054        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1055        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1057    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1058        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1059        always = expression.args.get("always")
1060        default = expression.args.get("default")
1061        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1062        never = expression.args.get("never")
1063
1064        if autotemp is not None:
1065            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1066        elif always:
1067            prop = "ALWAYS"
1068        elif default:
1069            prop = "DEFAULT"
1070        elif manual:
1071            prop = "MANUAL"
1072        elif never:
1073            prop = "NEVER"
1074        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1076    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1077        no = expression.args.get("no")
1078        no = " NO" if no else ""
1079        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1080        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1081
1082        for_ = ""
1083        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1084            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1085        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1086            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1087        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1088            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1089        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1091    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1092        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1093        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1094        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1095        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1096        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1097        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1099    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1100        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1101        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1102        statistics_sql = ""
1103        if statistics is not None:
1104            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1105        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1107    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1108        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1109
1110        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1111            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1112        else:
1113            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1114
1115        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1116        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1117        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1118
1119        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1120
1121        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1122        partition_sql = (
1123            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1124        )
1125        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1126        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1127        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1128        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1129        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1130        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1131        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1133    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1134        return self.prepend_ctes(
1135            expression,
1136            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1137        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1139    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1140        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1142    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1143        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1145    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1146        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1148    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1149        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1150        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1151        if constraint:
1152            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1153        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1154        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1155        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1156        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1157        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1158        if expressions:
1159            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1160        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1162    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1163        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1165    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1166        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1167        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1168        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1169        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1170        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1171        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1172        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1173        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1174        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1175        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1176        null = expression.args.get("null")
1177        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1178        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1180    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1181        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1183    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1184        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1185        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1186        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1187        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1189    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1190        table = ".".join(
1191            part
1192            for part in [
1193                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1194                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1195                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1196            ]
1197            if part
1198        )
1199
1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1201        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1202        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1203        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1204        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1205        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1206        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1207        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1208        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1209        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1210
1211        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1213    def tablesample_sql(
1214        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1215    ) -> str:
1216        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1217            table = expression.this.copy()
1218            table.set("alias", None)
1219            this = self.sql(table)
1220            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1221        else:
1222            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223            alias = ""
1224        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1225        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1226        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1227        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1228        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1229        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1230        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1231        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1232        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1233        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1234        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1235        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1236        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1237            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1238        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1239        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1240        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1241        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1243    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1245
1246        if expression.this:
1247            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1249            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1250            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1251            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1252            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1253
1254        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1255        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1256        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1257        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1258        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1259        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1261    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1262        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1264    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1267        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1268        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1269        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1270        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1271        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1272        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1274    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1275        args = self.expressions(expression)
1276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1277        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1278        values = (
1279            f"({values})"
1280            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1281            else values
1282        )
1283        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1285    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1286        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1288    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1289        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1290        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1291        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1293    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1294        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1296    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1297        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1298
1299        if expression.args.get("all"):
1300            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1301
1302        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1303        grouping_sets = (
1304            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1305        )
1306
1307        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1308        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1309            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1310        else:
1311            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1312            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1313
1314        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1315        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1316            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1317        else:
1318            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1319            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1320
1321        groupings = csv(
1322            grouping_sets,
1323            cube_sql,
1324            rollup_sql,
1325            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1326            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1327        )
1328
1329        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1330            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1331
1332        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1334    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1335        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1336        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1338    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1339        op_sql = " ".join(
1340            op
1341            for op in (
1342                expression.method,
1343                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1344                expression.side,
1345                expression.kind,
1346                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1347            )
1348            if op
1349        )
1350        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1351        using = expression.args.get("using")
1352
1353        if not on_sql and using:
1354            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1355
1356        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357
1358        if on_sql:
1359            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1360            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1361            if using:
1362                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1363            else:
1364                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1365        elif not op_sql:
1366            return f", {this_sql}"
1367
1368        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1369        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1371    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1373        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1374        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1376    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378
1379        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1380            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1381
1382        if expression.args.get("view"):
1383            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1384            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1385            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1386            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1387            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1388            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1389
1390        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1391        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1392        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1394    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        args = ", ".join(
1397            sql
1398            for sql in (
1399                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1400                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1401            )
1402            if sql
1403        )
1404        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1406    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1408        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1410    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1411        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1412        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1414        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1415        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1416        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1417        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1418        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1420    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1421        expressions = (
1422            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1423        )
1424        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1425        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1427    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1428        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1430    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1431        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1432            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1436        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1437        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1438        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1439
1440        if wait is not None:
1441            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1442                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1443            else:
1444                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1445
1446        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1448    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1449        text = expression.this or ""
1450        if expression.is_string:
1451            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1452        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1454    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1455        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1456        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1457            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1458        elif self.pretty:
1459            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1460        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1462    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1463        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1464        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1465        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1466        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1467        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1468        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1469        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1470        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1471        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1472        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1473        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1475    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1476        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1478    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1479        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1481    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1484        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1486    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1487        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1489    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1490        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1492    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1493        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1495    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1496        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1497        asc = not desc
1498
1499        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1500        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1501        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1502        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1503        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1504
1505        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1506        nulls_sort_change = ""
1507        if nulls_first and (
1508            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1509        ):
1510            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1511        elif (
1512            nulls_last
1513            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1514            and not nulls_are_last
1515        ):
1516            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1517
1518        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1519            self.unsupported(
1520                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1521            )
1522            nulls_sort_change = ""
1523
1524        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1526    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1527        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1528        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1529        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1530        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1531        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1532        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1533        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1534        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1535        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1536        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1537        definition_sqls = [
1538            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1539            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1540        ]
1541        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1542        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1543        body = "".join(
1544            (
1545                partition,
1546                order,
1547                measures,
1548                rows,
1549                after,
1550                pattern,
1551                define,
1552            )
1553        )
1554        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1555        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1556        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1558    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1559        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1560
1561        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1562        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1563
1564        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1565            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1566        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1567            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1568
1569        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1570
1571        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1572            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1573            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1574            else []
1575        )
1576
1577        return csv(
1578            *sqls,
1579            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1580            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1581            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1582            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1583            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1584            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1585            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1586            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1587            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1588            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1589            sep="",
1590        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1592    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1593        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1594    ) -> t.List[str]:
1595        return [
1596            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1597            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1598        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1600    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1601        return [
1602            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1603            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1604            if expression.args.get("windows")
1605            else "",
1606            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1607            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1608            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1609        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1611    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1612        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1613        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1614        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1616    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1617        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1618        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1619        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1620        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1621        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1622        top = (
1623            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1624            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1625            else ""
1626        )
1627
1628        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1629
1630        if kind:
1631            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1632                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1633            else:
1634                if kind == "STRUCT":
1635                    expressions = self.expressions(
1636                        sqls=[
1637                            self.sql(
1638                                exp.Struct(
1639                                    expressions=[
1640                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1641                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1642                                        )
1643                                        for e in expression.expressions
1644                                    ]
1645                                )
1646                            )
1647                        ]
1648                    )
1649                kind = ""
1650
1651        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1652        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1653            expression,
1654            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1655            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1656            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1657        )
1658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1660    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1662        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1663        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1664        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1666    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1667        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1669    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1670        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1671        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1672        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1673        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1674        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1676    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1678        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1679        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1681    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1683        kind = expression.text("kind")
1684        if kind:
1685            kind = f"{kind}."
1686        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1688    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1689        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1691    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1692        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1693        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1694
1695        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1696        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1697
1698        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1699        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1701    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1702        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1703        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1705    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1706        return self.prepend_ctes(
1707            expression,
1708            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1709        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1711    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1712        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1713        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1714        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1716    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1717        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1718        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1719        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1720            columns = alias.columns
1721            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1722        else:
1723            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1725        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1726        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1727        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1728        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1730    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1731        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1732        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1734    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1737        order = expression.args.get("order")
1738        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1739        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1741        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1742
1743        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1744
1745        first = expression.args.get("first")
1746        if first is None:
1747            first = ""
1748        else:
1749            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1750
1751        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1752            return f"{this} {alias}"
1753
1754        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1755        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1757    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1758        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1759        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1761    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1763        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1764        end = (
1765            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1766            or "CURRENT ROW"
1767        )
1768        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1770    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1773        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1775    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1777        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1778        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1779        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1781    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1782        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1783        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1784
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1787    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1788        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1790    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1791        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1793    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1796            this = self.wrap(this)
1797        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1799    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1800        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1802    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1805
1806        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1807            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1808            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1809
1810        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1811
1812        if default:
1813            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1814
1815        statements.append("END")
1816
1817        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1818            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1819
1820        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1822    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1825        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1827    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1828        order = expression.args.get("order")
1829        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1830        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1832    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1834        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1835        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1837    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1838        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1839
1840        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1841            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1842        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1843            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1844        else:
1845            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1847    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1848        expressions = expression.expressions
1849        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1850            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1851        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1853    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1854        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1855        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1857    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1859        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1860        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1861        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1862        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1863        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1864        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1865        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1867    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1868        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1870        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1871        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1873    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1874        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1876    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1877        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1878        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1879        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1881    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1882        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1884    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1885        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1886        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1887        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1888        if unique_keys is not None:
1889            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1890        else:
1891            unique_keys = ""
1892        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1893        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1894        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1895        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1896        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1897        return self.func(
1898            "JSON_OBJECT",
1899            *expression.expressions,
1900            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1901        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1903    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1906        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1907        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1908        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1909        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1911    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1914        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1915        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1916        with_ = (
1917            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1918            if expressions
1919            else ""
1920        )
1921        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1923    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1924        query = expression.args.get("query")
1925        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1926        field = expression.args.get("field")
1927        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1928
1929        if query:
1930            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1931        elif unnest:
1932            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1933        elif field:
1934            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1935        else:
1936            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1937
1938        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1940    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1941        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1943    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1944        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1945        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1946            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1947        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1948
1949        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1950            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1951            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1952
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954        if this:
1955            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1956            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1957
1958        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1960    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1961        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1963    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1966        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1967        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1968        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1969        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1971    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1972        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1974    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1975        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1976            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1977        else:
1978            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1979            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1980
1981        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1983    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1984        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1985        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1987        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1989    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1990        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1992    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1993        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1994        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1997    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1998        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2000    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2003        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2005    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2008    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2009        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2011    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2012        if not self.pretty:
2013            return self.binary(expression, op)
2014
2015        sqls = tuple(
2016            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2017            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2018        )
2019
2020        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2021        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2023    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2024        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2026    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2027        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2029    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2030        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2032    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2033        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2035    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2036        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2038    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2039        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2041    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2042        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2043        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2044        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2046    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2047        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2048        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2050    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2051        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2053    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2054        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2056    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2059        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2060        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2061        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2063    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2066        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2067        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2068        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2069        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2070        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2071        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2072        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2074    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2076        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2077        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2078        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2079
2080        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2081            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2082
2083        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2085    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2086        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2088    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2089        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2090        if chain is not None:
2091            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2092
2093        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2095    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2096        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2097        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2098        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2100    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102
2103        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2104        if dtype:
2105            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2106            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2107            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2108            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2109            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2110
2111        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2112        if default:
2113            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2114
2115        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2116            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2117
2118        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2120    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2121        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2122            # Remove db from tables
2123            expression = expression.transform(
2124                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2125            )
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2129    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2130        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2131
2132        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2133            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2134        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2135            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2136        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2137            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2138        else:
2139            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2140
2141        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2142        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2144    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2145        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2146        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2147        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2149    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2152        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2153
2154        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2155        if enforced is not None:
2156            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2157
2158        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2160    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2161        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2162        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2163
2164        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2165        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2166        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2168    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2169        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2171    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2172        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2174    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2175        return self.sql(
2176            exp.Cast(
2177                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2178                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2179            )
2180        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2182    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2185    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2186        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2187            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2188        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2190    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2193    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2194        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2196    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2197        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2199    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2200        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2202    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2203        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2205    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2206        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2208    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2209        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2211    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2212        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2214    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2215        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2217    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2218        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2220    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2221        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2223    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2224        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2225            return self.sql(
2226                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2227            )
2228        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2230    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2231        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2233    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2234        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2236    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2237        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2239    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2240        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2242    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2243        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2245    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2246        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2248    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2249        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2251    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2252        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2254    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2255        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2257    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2258        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2260    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2261        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2263    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2264        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2266    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2267        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2269    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2270        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2272    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2273        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2274        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2277        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2279    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2280        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2283    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2284        args = []
2285        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2286            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2287                for value in arg_value:
2288                    args.append(value)
2289            else:
2290                args.append(arg_value)
2291
2292        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2294    def func(
2295        self,
2296        name: str,
2297        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2298        prefix: str = "(",
2299        suffix: str = ")",
2300    ) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2303    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2304        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2305        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2306            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2307        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2309    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2310        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2312    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2313        return format_time(
2314            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2315        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2317    def expressions(
2318        self,
2319        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2320        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2321        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2322        flat: bool = False,
2323        indent: bool = True,
2324        skip_first: bool = False,
2325        sep: str = ", ",
2326        prefix: str = "",
2327    ) -> str:
2328        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2329
2330        if not expressions:
2331            return ""
2332
2333        if flat:
2334            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2335
2336        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2337
2338        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2339        pad = " " * self.pad
2340        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2341
2342        result_sqls = []
2343        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2344            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2345            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2346
2347            if self.pretty:
2348                if self.leading_comma:
2349                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2350                else:
2351                    result_sqls.append(
2352                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2353                    )
2354            else:
2355                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2356
2357        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2358        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2360    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2361        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2362        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2363        if flat:
2364            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2365        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2367    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2368        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2369        if not property_name:
2370            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2371        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2373    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        op = self.seg(op)
2376        return self.query_modifiers(
2377            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2378        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2380    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2381        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2383    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2384        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2386    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2389        expressions = (
2390            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2391        )
2392        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2394    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2397        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2399    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2400        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2402    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2403        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2404        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2405        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2406        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2407
2408        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2409        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2410            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2411            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2412                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2413        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2414            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2415                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2416            else:
2417                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2418        else:
2419            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2420        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2422    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2425        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2426        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2428    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2429        if expression.args.get("format"):
2430            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2431
2432        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2434    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2437        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2438        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2439        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2441    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2444        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2445        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2447    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2448        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2450    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2451        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2453    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2454        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2455        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2456        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2457        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2458        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2460    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2461        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2462        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2463
2464        if having:
2465            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2466
2467        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2470def cached_generator(
2471    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2472) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2473    """Returns a cached generator."""
2474    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2475    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2476    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.