1"""
   2## Expressions
   3
   4Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of `Expression`.
   5
   6This module contains the implementation of all supported `Expression` types. Additionally,
   7it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build
   8SQL expressions, such as `sqlglot.expressions.select`.
   9
  10----
  11"""
  12
  13from __future__ import annotations
  14
  15import datetime
  16import math
  17import numbers
  18import re
  19import textwrap
  20import typing as t
  21from collections import deque
  22from copy import deepcopy
  23from enum import auto
  24from functools import reduce
  25
  26from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, ParseError
  27from sqlglot.helper import (
  28    AutoName,
  29    camel_to_snake_case,
  30    ensure_collection,
  31    ensure_list,
  32    is_int,
  33    seq_get,
  34    subclasses,
  35)
  36from sqlglot.tokens import Token
  37
  38if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  39    from sqlglot._typing import E, Lit
  40    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  41
  42    Q = t.TypeVar("Q", bound="Query")
  43
  44
  45class _Expression(type):
  46    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  47        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  48
  49        # When an Expression class is created, its key is automatically set to be
  50        # the lowercase version of the class' name.
  51        klass.key = clsname.lower()
  52
  53        # This is so that docstrings are not inherited in pdoc
  54        klass.__doc__ = klass.__doc__ or ""
  55
  56        return klass
  57
  58
  59SQLGLOT_META = "sqlglot.meta"
  60TABLE_PARTS = ("this", "db", "catalog")
  61COLUMN_PARTS = ("this", "table", "db", "catalog")
  62
  63
  64class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
  65    """
  66    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
  67    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
  68    is optional or not.
  69
  70    Attributes:
  71        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
  72            and representing expressions as strings.
  73        arg_types: determines the arguments (child nodes) supported by an expression. It maps
  74            arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
  75        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  76        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
  77            uses to refer to it.
  78        index: the index of an expression if it is inside of a list argument in its parent.
  79        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
  80            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  81        type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
  82            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
  83        meta: a dictionary that can be used to store useful metadata for a given expression.
  84
  85    Example:
  86        >>> class Foo(Expression):
  87        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
  88
  89        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
  90        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
  91
  92    Args:
  93        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  94    """
  95
  96    key = "expression"
  97    arg_types = {"this": True}
  98    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "index", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
  99
 100    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
 101        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
 102        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
 103        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
 104        self.index: t.Optional[int] = None
 105        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
 106        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
 107        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 108        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 109
 110        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
 111            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 112
 113    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
 114        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
 115
 116    @property
 117    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
 118        return frozenset(
 119            (k, tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in v) if type(v) is list else _norm_arg(v))
 120            for k, v in self.args.items()
 121            if not (v is None or v is False or (type(v) is list and not v))
 122        )
 123
 124    def __hash__(self) -> int:
 125        if self._hash is not None:
 126            return self._hash
 127
 128        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
 129
 130    @property
 131    def this(self) -> t.Any:
 132        """
 133        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
 134        """
 135        return self.args.get("this")
 136
 137    @property
 138    def expression(self) -> t.Any:
 139        """
 140        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
 141        """
 142        return self.args.get("expression")
 143
 144    @property
 145    def expressions(self) -> t.List[t.Any]:
 146        """
 147        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
 148        """
 149        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
 150
 151    def text(self, key) -> str:
 152        """
 153        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
 154        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
 155        """
 156        field = self.args.get(key)
 157        if isinstance(field, str):
 158            return field
 159        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
 160            return field.this
 161        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
 162            return field.name
 163        return ""
 164
 165    @property
 166    def is_string(self) -> bool:
 167        """
 168        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
 169        """
 170        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
 171
 172    @property
 173    def is_number(self) -> bool:
 174        """
 175        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
 176        """
 177        return isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]
 178
 179    @property
 180    def is_negative(self) -> bool:
 181        """
 182        Checks whether an expression is negative.
 183
 184        Handles both exp.Neg and Literal numbers with "-" which come from optimizer.simplify.
 185        """
 186        return isinstance(self, Neg) or (self.is_number and self.this.startswith("-"))
 187
 188    @property
 189    def is_int(self) -> bool:
 190        """
 191        Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.
 192        """
 193        return self.is_number and is_int(self.name)
 194
 195    @property
 196    def is_star(self) -> bool:
 197        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
 198        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
 199
 200    @property
 201    def alias(self) -> str:
 202        """
 203        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
 204        """
 205        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
 206            return self.args["alias"].name
 207        return self.text("alias")
 208
 209    @property
 210    def alias_column_names(self) -> t.List[str]:
 211        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
 212        if not table_alias:
 213            return []
 214        return [c.name for c in table_alias.args.get("columns") or []]
 215
 216    @property
 217    def name(self) -> str:
 218        return self.text("this")
 219
 220    @property
 221    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 222        return self.alias or self.name
 223
 224    @property
 225    def output_name(self) -> str:
 226        """
 227        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
 228
 229        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
 230
 231        Example:
 232            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
 233            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
 234            'a'
 235            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
 236            'c'
 237            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
 238            ''
 239        """
 240        return ""
 241
 242    @property
 243    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
 244        return self._type
 245
 246    @type.setter
 247    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
 248        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
 249            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
 250        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
 251
 252    def is_type(self, *dtypes) -> bool:
 253        return self.type is not None and self.type.is_type(*dtypes)
 254
 255    def is_leaf(self) -> bool:
 256        return not any(isinstance(v, (Expression, list)) for v in self.args.values())
 257
 258    @property
 259    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
 260        if self._meta is None:
 261            self._meta = {}
 262        return self._meta
 263
 264    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
 265        root = self.__class__()
 266        stack = [(self, root)]
 267
 268        while stack:
 269            node, copy = stack.pop()
 270
 271            if node.comments is not None:
 272                copy.comments = deepcopy(node.comments)
 273            if node._type is not None:
 274                copy._type = deepcopy(node._type)
 275            if node._meta is not None:
 276                copy._meta = deepcopy(node._meta)
 277            if node._hash is not None:
 278                copy._hash = node._hash
 279
 280            for k, vs in node.args.items():
 281                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 282                    stack.append((vs, vs.__class__()))
 283                    copy.set(k, stack[-1][-1])
 284                elif type(vs) is list:
 285                    copy.args[k] = []
 286
 287                    for v in vs:
 288                        if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 289                            stack.append((v, v.__class__()))
 290                            copy.append(k, stack[-1][-1])
 291                        else:
 292                            copy.append(k, v)
 293                else:
 294                    copy.args[k] = vs
 295
 296        return root
 297
 298    def copy(self):
 299        """
 300        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
 301        """
 302        return deepcopy(self)
 303
 304    def add_comments(self, comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None) -> None:
 305        if self.comments is None:
 306            self.comments = []
 307
 308        if comments:
 309            for comment in comments:
 310                _, *meta = comment.split(SQLGLOT_META)
 311                if meta:
 312                    for kv in "".join(meta).split(","):
 313                        k, *v = kv.split("=")
 314                        value = v[0].strip() if v else True
 315                        self.meta[k.strip()] = value
 316                self.comments.append(comment)
 317
 318    def pop_comments(self) -> t.List[str]:
 319        comments = self.comments or []
 320        self.comments = None
 321        return comments
 322
 323    def append(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 324        """
 325        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
 326
 327        Args:
 328            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
 329            value (Any): value to append to the list
 330        """
 331        if type(self.args.get(arg_key)) is not list:
 332            self.args[arg_key] = []
 333        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 334        values = self.args[arg_key]
 335        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 336            value.index = len(values)
 337        values.append(value)
 338
 339    def set(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any, index: t.Optional[int] = None) -> None:
 340        """
 341        Sets arg_key to value.
 342
 343        Args:
 344            arg_key: name of the expression arg.
 345            value: value to set the arg to.
 346            index: if the arg is a list, this specifies what position to add the value in it.
 347        """
 348        if index is not None:
 349            expressions = self.args.get(arg_key) or []
 350
 351            if seq_get(expressions, index) is None:
 352                return
 353            if value is None:
 354                expressions.pop(index)
 355                for v in expressions[index:]:
 356                    v.index = v.index - 1
 357                return
 358
 359            if isinstance(value, list):
 360                expressions.pop(index)
 361                expressions[index:index] = value
 362            else:
 363                expressions[index] = value
 364
 365            value = expressions
 366        elif value is None:
 367            self.args.pop(arg_key, None)
 368            return
 369
 370        self.args[arg_key] = value
 371        self._set_parent(arg_key, value, index)
 372
 373    def _set_parent(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any, index: t.Optional[int] = None) -> None:
 374        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 375            value.parent = self
 376            value.arg_key = arg_key
 377            value.index = index
 378        elif type(value) is list:
 379            for index, v in enumerate(value):
 380                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 381                    v.parent = self
 382                    v.arg_key = arg_key
 383                    v.index = index
 384
 385    @property
 386    def depth(self) -> int:
 387        """
 388        Returns the depth of this tree.
 389        """
 390        if self.parent:
 391            return self.parent.depth + 1
 392        return 0
 393
 394    def iter_expressions(self, reverse: bool = False) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 395        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
 396        # remove tuple when python 3.7 is deprecated
 397        for vs in reversed(tuple(self.args.values())) if reverse else self.args.values():
 398            if type(vs) is list:
 399                for v in reversed(vs) if reverse else vs:
 400                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 401                        yield v
 402            else:
 403                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 404                    yield vs
 405
 406    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Optional[E]:
 407        """
 408        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
 409        the specified types.
 410
 411        Args:
 412            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 413            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 414
 415        Returns:
 416            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
 417        """
 418        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
 419
 420    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
 421        """
 422        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
 423        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
 424
 425        Args:
 426            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 427            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 428
 429        Returns:
 430            The generator object.
 431        """
 432        for expression in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
 433            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
 434                yield expression
 435
 436    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> t.Optional[E]:
 437        """
 438        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
 439
 440        Args:
 441            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 442
 443        Returns:
 444            The parent node.
 445        """
 446        ancestor = self.parent
 447        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
 448            ancestor = ancestor.parent
 449        return ancestor  # type: ignore
 450
 451    @property
 452    def parent_select(self) -> t.Optional[Select]:
 453        """
 454        Returns the parent select statement.
 455        """
 456        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
 457
 458    @property
 459    def same_parent(self) -> bool:
 460        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
 461        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
 462
 463    def root(self) -> Expression:
 464        """
 465        Returns the root expression of this tree.
 466        """
 467        expression = self
 468        while expression.parent:
 469            expression = expression.parent
 470        return expression
 471
 472    def walk(
 473        self, bfs: bool = True, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 474    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 475        """
 476        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
 477
 478        Args:
 479            bfs: if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
 480                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
 481            prune: callable that returns True if the generator should stop traversing
 482                this branch of the tree.
 483
 484        Returns:
 485            the generator object.
 486        """
 487        if bfs:
 488            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
 489        else:
 490            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
 491
 492    def dfs(
 493        self, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 494    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 495        """
 496        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 497        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
 498
 499        Returns:
 500            The generator object.
 501        """
 502        stack = [self]
 503
 504        while stack:
 505            node = stack.pop()
 506
 507            yield node
 508
 509            if prune and prune(node):
 510                continue
 511
 512            for v in node.iter_expressions(reverse=True):
 513                stack.append(v)
 514
 515    def bfs(
 516        self, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 517    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 518        """
 519        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 520        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
 521
 522        Returns:
 523            The generator object.
 524        """
 525        queue = deque([self])
 526
 527        while queue:
 528            node = queue.popleft()
 529
 530            yield node
 531
 532            if prune and prune(node):
 533                continue
 534
 535            for v in node.iter_expressions():
 536                queue.append(v)
 537
 538    def unnest(self):
 539        """
 540        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
 541        """
 542        expression = self
 543        while type(expression) is Paren:
 544            expression = expression.this
 545        return expression
 546
 547    def unalias(self):
 548        """
 549        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
 550        """
 551        if isinstance(self, Alias):
 552            return self.this
 553        return self
 554
 555    def unnest_operands(self):
 556        """
 557        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
 558        """
 559        return tuple(arg.unnest() for arg in self.iter_expressions())
 560
 561    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
 562        """
 563        Returns a generator which yields child nodes whose parents are the same class.
 564
 565        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
 566        """
 567        for node in self.dfs(prune=lambda n: n.parent and type(n) is not self.__class__):
 568            if type(node) is not self.__class__:
 569                yield node.unnest() if unnest and not isinstance(node, Subquery) else node
 570
 571    def __str__(self) -> str:
 572        return self.sql()
 573
 574    def __repr__(self) -> str:
 575        return _to_s(self)
 576
 577    def to_s(self) -> str:
 578        """
 579        Same as __repr__, but includes additional information which can be useful
 580        for debugging, like empty or missing args and the AST nodes' object IDs.
 581        """
 582        return _to_s(self, verbose=True)
 583
 584    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
 585        """
 586        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
 587
 588        Args:
 589            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
 590            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
 591
 592        Returns:
 593            The SQL string.
 594        """
 595        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 596
 597        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect).generate(self, **opts)
 598
 599    def transform(self, fun: t.Callable, *args: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **kwargs) -> Expression:
 600        """
 601        Visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
 602        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
 603
 604        Args:
 605            fun: a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
 606                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
 607                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
 608            copy: if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
 609                modified in place.
 610
 611        Returns:
 612            The transformed tree.
 613        """
 614        root = None
 615        new_node = None
 616
 617        for node in (self.copy() if copy else self).dfs(prune=lambda n: n is not new_node):
 618            parent, arg_key, index = node.parent, node.arg_key, node.index
 619            new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
 620
 621            if not root:
 622                root = new_node
 623            elif new_node is not node:
 624                parent.set(arg_key, new_node, index)
 625
 626        assert root
 627        return root.assert_is(Expression)
 628
 629    @t.overload
 630    def replace(self, expression: E) -> E: ...
 631
 632    @t.overload
 633    def replace(self, expression: None) -> None: ...
 634
 635    def replace(self, expression):
 636        """
 637        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
 638
 639        For example::
 640
 641            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
 642            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(column("y"))
 643            Column(
 644              this=Identifier(this=y, quoted=False))
 645            >>> tree.sql()
 646            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
 647
 648        Args:
 649            expression: new node
 650
 651        Returns:
 652            The new expression or expressions.
 653        """
 654        parent = self.parent
 655
 656        if not parent or parent is expression:
 657            return expression
 658
 659        key = self.arg_key
 660        value = parent.args.get(key)
 661
 662        if type(expression) is list and isinstance(value, Expression):
 663            # We are trying to replace an Expression with a list, so it's assumed that
 664            # the intention was to really replace the parent of this expression.
 665            value.parent.replace(expression)
 666        else:
 667            parent.set(key, expression, self.index)
 668
 669        if expression is not self:
 670            self.parent = None
 671            self.arg_key = None
 672            self.index = None
 673
 674        return expression
 675
 676    def pop(self: E) -> E:
 677        """
 678        Remove this expression from its AST.
 679
 680        Returns:
 681            The popped expression.
 682        """
 683        self.replace(None)
 684        return self
 685
 686    def assert_is(self, type_: t.Type[E]) -> E:
 687        """
 688        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
 689
 690        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
 691        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
 692
 693        Examples:
 694            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
 695
 696            >>> import sqlglot
 697            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
 698            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
 699        """
 700        if not isinstance(self, type_):
 701            raise AssertionError(f"{self} is not {type_}.")
 702        return self
 703
 704    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
 705        """
 706        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
 707
 708        Args:
 709            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
 710                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
 711
 712        Returns:
 713            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
 714        """
 715        errors: t.List[str] = []
 716
 717        for k in self.args:
 718            if k not in self.arg_types:
 719                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
 720        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
 721            v = self.args.get(k)
 722            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
 723                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
 724
 725        if (
 726            args
 727            and isinstance(self, Func)
 728            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
 729            and not self.is_var_len_args
 730        ):
 731            errors.append(
 732                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
 733                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
 734            )
 735
 736        return errors
 737
 738    def dump(self):
 739        """
 740        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
 741        """
 742        from sqlglot.serde import dump
 743
 744        return dump(self)
 745
 746    @classmethod
 747    def load(cls, obj):
 748        """
 749        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
 750        """
 751        from sqlglot.serde import load
 752
 753        return load(obj)
 754
 755    def and_(
 756        self,
 757        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 758        dialect: DialectType = None,
 759        copy: bool = True,
 760        **opts,
 761    ) -> Condition:
 762        """
 763        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 764
 765        Example:
 766            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
 767            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
 768
 769        Args:
 770            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 771                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 772            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 773            copy: whether to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 774            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 775
 776        Returns:
 777            The new And condition.
 778        """
 779        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 780
 781    def or_(
 782        self,
 783        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 784        dialect: DialectType = None,
 785        copy: bool = True,
 786        **opts,
 787    ) -> Condition:
 788        """
 789        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 790
 791        Example:
 792            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
 793            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
 794
 795        Args:
 796            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 797                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 798            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 799            copy: whether to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 800            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 801
 802        Returns:
 803            The new Or condition.
 804        """
 805        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 806
 807    def not_(self, copy: bool = True):
 808        """
 809        Wrap this condition with NOT.
 810
 811        Example:
 812            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
 813            'NOT x = 1'
 814
 815        Args:
 816            copy: whether to copy this object.
 817
 818        Returns:
 819            The new Not instance.
 820        """
 821        return not_(self, copy=copy)
 822
 823    def as_(
 824        self,
 825        alias: str | Identifier,
 826        quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 827        dialect: DialectType = None,
 828        copy: bool = True,
 829        **opts,
 830    ) -> Alias:
 831        return alias_(self, alias, quoted=quoted, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 832
 833    def _binop(self, klass: t.Type[E], other: t.Any, reverse: bool = False) -> E:
 834        this = self.copy()
 835        other = convert(other, copy=True)
 836        if not isinstance(this, klass) and not isinstance(other, klass):
 837            this = _wrap(this, Binary)
 838            other = _wrap(other, Binary)
 839        if reverse:
 840            return klass(this=other, expression=this)
 841        return klass(this=this, expression=other)
 842
 843    def __getitem__(self, other: ExpOrStr | t.Tuple[ExpOrStr]) -> Bracket:
 844        return Bracket(
 845            this=self.copy(), expressions=[convert(e, copy=True) for e in ensure_list(other)]
 846        )
 847
 848    def __iter__(self) -> t.Iterator:
 849        if "expressions" in self.arg_types:
 850            return iter(self.args.get("expressions") or [])
 851        # We define this because __getitem__ converts Expression into an iterable, which is
 852        # problematic because one can hit infinite loops if they do "for x in some_expr: ..."
 853        # See: https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/
 854        raise TypeError(f"'{self.__class__.__name__}' object is not iterable")
 855
 856    def isin(
 857        self,
 858        *expressions: t.Any,
 859        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
 860        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
 861        copy: bool = True,
 862        **opts,
 863    ) -> In:
 864        subquery = maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None
 865        if subquery and not isinstance(subquery, Subquery):
 866            subquery = subquery.subquery(copy=False)
 867
 868        return In(
 869            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 870            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
 871            query=subquery,
 872            unnest=(
 873                Unnest(
 874                    expressions=[
 875                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
 876                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
 877                    ]
 878                )
 879                if unnest
 880                else None
 881            ),
 882        )
 883
 884    def between(self, low: t.Any, high: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Between:
 885        return Between(
 886            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 887            low=convert(low, copy=copy, **opts),
 888            high=convert(high, copy=copy, **opts),
 889        )
 890
 891    def is_(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Is:
 892        return self._binop(Is, other)
 893
 894    def like(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Like:
 895        return self._binop(Like, other)
 896
 897    def ilike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> ILike:
 898        return self._binop(ILike, other)
 899
 900    def eq(self, other: t.Any) -> EQ:
 901        return self._binop(EQ, other)
 902
 903    def neq(self, other: t.Any) -> NEQ:
 904        return self._binop(NEQ, other)
 905
 906    def rlike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> RegexpLike:
 907        return self._binop(RegexpLike, other)
 908
 909    def div(self, other: ExpOrStr, typed: bool = False, safe: bool = False) -> Div:
 910        div = self._binop(Div, other)
 911        div.args["typed"] = typed
 912        div.args["safe"] = safe
 913        return div
 914
 915    def asc(self, nulls_first: bool = True) -> Ordered:
 916        return Ordered(this=self.copy(), nulls_first=nulls_first)
 917
 918    def desc(self, nulls_first: bool = False) -> Ordered:
 919        return Ordered(this=self.copy(), desc=True, nulls_first=nulls_first)
 920
 921    def __lt__(self, other: t.Any) -> LT:
 922        return self._binop(LT, other)
 923
 924    def __le__(self, other: t.Any) -> LTE:
 925        return self._binop(LTE, other)
 926
 927    def __gt__(self, other: t.Any) -> GT:
 928        return self._binop(GT, other)
 929
 930    def __ge__(self, other: t.Any) -> GTE:
 931        return self._binop(GTE, other)
 932
 933    def __add__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 934        return self._binop(Add, other)
 935
 936    def __radd__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 937        return self._binop(Add, other, reverse=True)
 938
 939    def __sub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 940        return self._binop(Sub, other)
 941
 942    def __rsub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 943        return self._binop(Sub, other, reverse=True)
 944
 945    def __mul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 946        return self._binop(Mul, other)
 947
 948    def __rmul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 949        return self._binop(Mul, other, reverse=True)
 950
 951    def __truediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 952        return self._binop(Div, other)
 953
 954    def __rtruediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 955        return self._binop(Div, other, reverse=True)
 956
 957    def __floordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 958        return self._binop(IntDiv, other)
 959
 960    def __rfloordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 961        return self._binop(IntDiv, other, reverse=True)
 962
 963    def __mod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 964        return self._binop(Mod, other)
 965
 966    def __rmod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 967        return self._binop(Mod, other, reverse=True)
 968
 969    def __pow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 970        return self._binop(Pow, other)
 971
 972    def __rpow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 973        return self._binop(Pow, other, reverse=True)
 974
 975    def __and__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 976        return self._binop(And, other)
 977
 978    def __rand__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 979        return self._binop(And, other, reverse=True)
 980
 981    def __or__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 982        return self._binop(Or, other)
 983
 984    def __ror__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 985        return self._binop(Or, other, reverse=True)
 986
 987    def __neg__(self) -> Neg:
 988        return Neg(this=_wrap(self.copy(), Binary))
 989
 990    def __invert__(self) -> Not:
 991        return not_(self.copy())
 992
 993
 994IntoType = t.Union[
 995    str,
 996    t.Type[Expression],
 997    t.Collection[t.Union[str, t.Type[Expression]]],
 998]
 999ExpOrStr = t.Union[str, Expression]
1000
1001
1002class Condition(Expression):
1003    """Logical conditions like x AND y, or simply x"""
1004
1005
1006class Predicate(Condition):
1007    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""
1008
1009
1010class DerivedTable(Expression):
1011    @property
1012    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1013        return self.this.selects if isinstance(self.this, Query) else []
1014
1015    @property
1016    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1017        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
1018
1019
1020class Query(Expression):
1021    def subquery(self, alias: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None, copy: bool = True) -> Subquery:
1022        """
1023        Returns a `Subquery` that wraps around this query.
1024
1025        Example:
1026            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
1027            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
1028            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
1029
1030        Args:
1031            alias: an optional alias for the subquery.
1032            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1033        """
1034        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1035        if not isinstance(alias, Expression):
1036            alias = TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None
1037
1038        return Subquery(this=instance, alias=alias)
1039
1040    def limit(
1041        self: Q, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
1042    ) -> Q:
1043        """
1044        Adds a LIMIT clause to this query.
1045
1046        Example:
1047            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
1048            'SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1 LIMIT 1'
1049
1050        Args:
1051            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
1052                This can also be an integer.
1053                If a `Limit` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1054                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
1055            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1056            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1057            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1058
1059        Returns:
1060            A limited Select expression.
1061        """
1062        return _apply_builder(
1063            expression=expression,
1064            instance=self,
1065            arg="limit",
1066            into=Limit,
1067            prefix="LIMIT",
1068            dialect=dialect,
1069            copy=copy,
1070            into_arg="expression",
1071            **opts,
1072        )
1073
1074    def offset(
1075        self: Q, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
1076    ) -> Q:
1077        """
1078        Set the OFFSET expression.
1079
1080        Example:
1081            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
1082            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
1083
1084        Args:
1085            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
1086                This can also be an integer.
1087                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1088                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
1089            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1090            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1091            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1092
1093        Returns:
1094            The modified Select expression.
1095        """
1096        return _apply_builder(
1097            expression=expression,
1098            instance=self,
1099            arg="offset",
1100            into=Offset,
1101            prefix="OFFSET",
1102            dialect=dialect,
1103            copy=copy,
1104            into_arg="expression",
1105            **opts,
1106        )
1107
1108    def order_by(
1109        self: Q,
1110        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1111        append: bool = True,
1112        dialect: DialectType = None,
1113        copy: bool = True,
1114        **opts,
1115    ) -> Q:
1116        """
1117        Set the ORDER BY expression.
1118
1119        Example:
1120            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
1121            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
1122
1123        Args:
1124            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1125                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1126                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
1127            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1128                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
1129            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1130            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1131            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1132
1133        Returns:
1134            The modified Select expression.
1135        """
1136        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1137            *expressions,
1138            instance=self,
1139            arg="order",
1140            append=append,
1141            copy=copy,
1142            prefix="ORDER BY",
1143            into=Order,
1144            dialect=dialect,
1145            **opts,
1146        )
1147
1148    @property
1149    def ctes(self) -> t.List[CTE]:
1150        """Returns a list of all the CTEs attached to this query."""
1151        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1152        return with_.expressions if with_ else []
1153
1154    @property
1155    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1156        """Returns the query's projections."""
1157        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `selects`")
1158
1159    @property
1160    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1161        """Returns the output names of the query's projections."""
1162        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `named_selects`")
1163
1164    def select(
1165        self: Q,
1166        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1167        append: bool = True,
1168        dialect: DialectType = None,
1169        copy: bool = True,
1170        **opts,
1171    ) -> Q:
1172        """
1173        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
1174
1175        Example:
1176            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
1177            'SELECT x, y'
1178
1179        Args:
1180            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1181                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1182            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1183                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1184            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1185            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1186            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1187
1188        Returns:
1189            The modified Query expression.
1190        """
1191        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `select`")
1192
1193    def with_(
1194        self: Q,
1195        alias: ExpOrStr,
1196        as_: ExpOrStr,
1197        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
1198        append: bool = True,
1199        dialect: DialectType = None,
1200        copy: bool = True,
1201        **opts,
1202    ) -> Q:
1203        """
1204        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1205
1206        Example:
1207            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
1208            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
1209
1210        Args:
1211            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1212                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1213            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1214                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1215            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1216            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1217                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1218            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1219            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1220            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1221
1222        Returns:
1223            The modified expression.
1224        """
1225        return _apply_cte_builder(
1226            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
1227        )
1228
1229    def union(
1230        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1231    ) -> Union:
1232        """
1233        Builds a UNION expression.
1234
1235        Example:
1236            >>> import sqlglot
1237            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1238            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
1239
1240        Args:
1241            expression: the SQL code string.
1242                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1243            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1244            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1245            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1246
1247        Returns:
1248            The new Union expression.
1249        """
1250        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1251
1252    def intersect(
1253        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1254    ) -> Intersect:
1255        """
1256        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
1257
1258        Example:
1259            >>> import sqlglot
1260            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1261            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
1262
1263        Args:
1264            expression: the SQL code string.
1265                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1266            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1267            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1268            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1269
1270        Returns:
1271            The new Intersect expression.
1272        """
1273        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1274
1275    def except_(
1276        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1277    ) -> Except:
1278        """
1279        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
1280
1281        Example:
1282            >>> import sqlglot
1283            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1284            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
1285
1286        Args:
1287            expression: the SQL code string.
1288                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1289            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1290            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1291            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1292
1293        Returns:
1294            The new Except expression.
1295        """
1296        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1297
1298
1299class UDTF(DerivedTable):
1300    @property
1301    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1302        alias = self.args.get("alias")
1303        return alias.columns if alias else []
1304
1305
1306class Cache(Expression):
1307    arg_types = {
1308        "this": True,
1309        "lazy": False,
1310        "options": False,
1311        "expression": False,
1312    }
1313
1314
1315class Uncache(Expression):
1316    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
1317
1318
1319class Refresh(Expression):
1320    pass
1321
1322
1323class DDL(Expression):
1324    @property
1325    def ctes(self) -> t.List[CTE]:
1326        """Returns a list of all the CTEs attached to this statement."""
1327        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1328        return with_.expressions if with_ else []
1329
1330    @property
1331    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1332        """If this statement contains a query (e.g. a CTAS), this returns the query's projections."""
1333        return self.expression.selects if isinstance(self.expression, Query) else []
1334
1335    @property
1336    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1337        """
1338        If this statement contains a query (e.g. a CTAS), this returns the output
1339        names of the query's projections.
1340        """
1341        return self.expression.named_selects if isinstance(self.expression, Query) else []
1342
1343
1344class DML(Expression):
1345    def returning(
1346        self,
1347        expression: ExpOrStr,
1348        dialect: DialectType = None,
1349        copy: bool = True,
1350        **opts,
1351    ) -> DML:
1352        """
1353        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1354
1355        Example:
1356            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1357            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1358
1359        Args:
1360            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1361                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1362            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1363            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1364            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1365
1366        Returns:
1367            Delete: the modified expression.
1368        """
1369        return _apply_builder(
1370            expression=expression,
1371            instance=self,
1372            arg="returning",
1373            prefix="RETURNING",
1374            dialect=dialect,
1375            copy=copy,
1376            into=Returning,
1377            **opts,
1378        )
1379
1380
1381class Create(DDL):
1382    arg_types = {
1383        "with": False,
1384        "this": True,
1385        "kind": True,
1386        "expression": False,
1387        "exists": False,
1388        "properties": False,
1389        "replace": False,
1390        "unique": False,
1391        "indexes": False,
1392        "no_schema_binding": False,
1393        "begin": False,
1394        "end": False,
1395        "clone": False,
1396    }
1397
1398    @property
1399    def kind(self) -> t.Optional[str]:
1400        kind = self.args.get("kind")
1401        return kind and kind.upper()
1402
1403
1404class SequenceProperties(Expression):
1405    arg_types = {
1406        "increment": False,
1407        "minvalue": False,
1408        "maxvalue": False,
1409        "cache": False,
1410        "start": False,
1411        "owned": False,
1412        "options": False,
1413    }
1414
1415
1416class TruncateTable(Expression):
1417    arg_types = {
1418        "expressions": True,
1419        "is_database": False,
1420        "exists": False,
1421        "only": False,
1422        "cluster": False,
1423        "identity": False,
1424        "option": False,
1425        "partition": False,
1426    }
1427
1428
1429# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-clone
1430# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_clone_statement
1431# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_copy
1432class Clone(Expression):
1433    arg_types = {"this": True, "shallow": False, "copy": False}
1434
1435
1436class Describe(Expression):
1437    arg_types = {"this": True, "style": False, "kind": False, "expressions": False}
1438
1439
1440class Kill(Expression):
1441    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
1442
1443
1444class Pragma(Expression):
1445    pass
1446
1447
1448class Set(Expression):
1449    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "unset": False, "tag": False}
1450
1451
1452class Heredoc(Expression):
1453    arg_types = {"this": True, "tag": False}
1454
1455
1456class SetItem(Expression):
1457    arg_types = {
1458        "this": False,
1459        "expressions": False,
1460        "kind": False,
1461        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
1462        "global": False,
1463    }
1464
1465
1466class Show(Expression):
1467    arg_types = {
1468        "this": True,
1469        "history": False,
1470        "terse": False,
1471        "target": False,
1472        "offset": False,
1473        "starts_with": False,
1474        "limit": False,
1475        "from": False,
1476        "like": False,
1477        "where": False,
1478        "db": False,
1479        "scope": False,
1480        "scope_kind": False,
1481        "full": False,
1482        "mutex": False,
1483        "query": False,
1484        "channel": False,
1485        "global": False,
1486        "log": False,
1487        "position": False,
1488        "types": False,
1489    }
1490
1491
1492class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
1493    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
1494
1495
1496class CharacterSet(Expression):
1497    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
1498
1499
1500class With(Expression):
1501    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
1502
1503    @property
1504    def recursive(self) -> bool:
1505        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
1506
1507
1508class WithinGroup(Expression):
1509    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1510
1511
1512# clickhouse supports scalar ctes
1513# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/with
1514class CTE(DerivedTable):
1515    arg_types = {
1516        "this": True,
1517        "alias": True,
1518        "scalar": False,
1519        "materialized": False,
1520    }
1521
1522
1523class TableAlias(Expression):
1524    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
1525
1526    @property
1527    def columns(self):
1528        return self.args.get("columns") or []
1529
1530
1531class BitString(Condition):
1532    pass
1533
1534
1535class HexString(Condition):
1536    pass
1537
1538
1539class ByteString(Condition):
1540    pass
1541
1542
1543class RawString(Condition):
1544    pass
1545
1546
1547class UnicodeString(Condition):
1548    arg_types = {"this": True, "escape": False}
1549
1550
1551class Column(Condition):
1552    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
1553
1554    @property
1555    def table(self) -> str:
1556        return self.text("table")
1557
1558    @property
1559    def db(self) -> str:
1560        return self.text("db")
1561
1562    @property
1563    def catalog(self) -> str:
1564        return self.text("catalog")
1565
1566    @property
1567    def output_name(self) -> str:
1568        return self.name
1569
1570    @property
1571    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
1572        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
1573        return [
1574            t.cast(Identifier, self.args[part])
1575            for part in ("catalog", "db", "table", "this")
1576            if self.args.get(part)
1577        ]
1578
1579    def to_dot(self) -> Dot | Identifier:
1580        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
1581        parts = self.parts
1582        parent = self.parent
1583
1584        while parent:
1585            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
1586                parts.append(parent.expression)
1587            parent = parent.parent
1588
1589        return Dot.build(deepcopy(parts)) if len(parts) > 1 else parts[0]
1590
1591
1592class ColumnPosition(Expression):
1593    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
1594
1595
1596class ColumnDef(Expression):
1597    arg_types = {
1598        "this": True,
1599        "kind": False,
1600        "constraints": False,
1601        "exists": False,
1602        "position": False,
1603    }
1604
1605    @property
1606    def constraints(self) -> t.List[ColumnConstraint]:
1607        return self.args.get("constraints") or []
1608
1609    @property
1610    def kind(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
1611        return self.args.get("kind")
1612
1613
1614class AlterColumn(Expression):
1615    arg_types = {
1616        "this": True,
1617        "dtype": False,
1618        "collate": False,
1619        "using": False,
1620        "default": False,
1621        "drop": False,
1622        "comment": False,
1623    }
1624
1625
1626class RenameColumn(Expression):
1627    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True, "exists": False}
1628
1629
1630class RenameTable(Expression):
1631    pass
1632
1633
1634class SwapTable(Expression):
1635    pass
1636
1637
1638class Comment(Expression):
1639    arg_types = {
1640        "this": True,
1641        "kind": True,
1642        "expression": True,
1643        "exists": False,
1644        "materialized": False,
1645    }
1646
1647
1648class Comprehension(Expression):
1649    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "iterator": True, "condition": False}
1650
1651
1652# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1653class MergeTreeTTLAction(Expression):
1654    arg_types = {
1655        "this": True,
1656        "delete": False,
1657        "recompress": False,
1658        "to_disk": False,
1659        "to_volume": False,
1660    }
1661
1662
1663# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1664class MergeTreeTTL(Expression):
1665    arg_types = {
1666        "expressions": True,
1667        "where": False,
1668        "group": False,
1669        "aggregates": False,
1670    }
1671
1672
1673# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1674class IndexConstraintOption(Expression):
1675    arg_types = {
1676        "key_block_size": False,
1677        "using": False,
1678        "parser": False,
1679        "comment": False,
1680        "visible": False,
1681        "engine_attr": False,
1682        "secondary_engine_attr": False,
1683    }
1684
1685
1686class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
1687    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
1688
1689    @property
1690    def kind(self) -> ColumnConstraintKind:
1691        return self.args["kind"]
1692
1693
1694class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
1695    pass
1696
1697
1698class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1699    pass
1700
1701
1702class PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1703    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1704
1705
1706class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1707    arg_types = {"not_": True}
1708
1709
1710class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1711    arg_types = {"this": True}
1712
1713
1714class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1715    arg_types = {"this": True, "enforced": False}
1716
1717
1718class ClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1719    pass
1720
1721
1722class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1723    pass
1724
1725
1726class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1727    pass
1728
1729
1730class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1731    pass
1732
1733
1734class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1735    arg_types = {"this": True}
1736
1737
1738class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1739    pass
1740
1741
1742class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1743    pass
1744
1745
1746# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html#SQL-CREATETABLE-EXCLUDE
1747class ExcludeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1748    pass
1749
1750
1751class EphemeralColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1752    arg_types = {"this": False}
1753
1754
1755class WithOperator(Expression):
1756    arg_types = {"this": True, "op": True}
1757
1758
1759class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1760    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1761    arg_types = {
1762        "this": False,
1763        "expression": False,
1764        "on_null": False,
1765        "start": False,
1766        "increment": False,
1767        "minvalue": False,
1768        "maxvalue": False,
1769        "cycle": False,
1770    }
1771
1772
1773class GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1774    arg_types = {"start": False, "hidden": False}
1775
1776
1777# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1778# https://github.com/ClickHouse/ClickHouse/blob/master/src/Parsers/ParserCreateQuery.h#L646
1779class IndexColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1780    arg_types = {
1781        "this": False,
1782        "expressions": False,
1783        "kind": False,
1784        "index_type": False,
1785        "options": False,
1786        "expression": False,  # Clickhouse
1787        "granularity": False,
1788    }
1789
1790
1791class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1792    pass
1793
1794
1795class NonClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1796    pass
1797
1798
1799class NotForReplicationColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1800    arg_types = {}
1801
1802
1803class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1804    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
1805
1806
1807# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/timestamp-initialization.html
1808class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1809    pass
1810
1811
1812# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-external-table#optional-parameters
1813class TransformColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1814    pass
1815
1816
1817class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1818    arg_types = {"desc": False}
1819
1820
1821class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1822    pass
1823
1824
1825class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1826    arg_types = {"this": False, "index_type": False, "on_conflict": False}
1827
1828
1829class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1830    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1831
1832
1833class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1834    pass
1835
1836
1837# computed column expression
1838# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-table-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
1839class ComputedColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1840    arg_types = {"this": True, "persisted": False, "not_null": False}
1841
1842
1843class Constraint(Expression):
1844    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1845
1846
1847class Delete(DML):
1848    arg_types = {
1849        "with": False,
1850        "this": False,
1851        "using": False,
1852        "where": False,
1853        "returning": False,
1854        "limit": False,
1855        "tables": False,  # Multiple-Table Syntax (MySQL)
1856    }
1857
1858    def delete(
1859        self,
1860        table: ExpOrStr,
1861        dialect: DialectType = None,
1862        copy: bool = True,
1863        **opts,
1864    ) -> Delete:
1865        """
1866        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1867
1868        Example:
1869            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1870            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1871
1872        Args:
1873            table: the table from which to delete.
1874            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1875            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1876            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1877
1878        Returns:
1879            Delete: the modified expression.
1880        """
1881        return _apply_builder(
1882            expression=table,
1883            instance=self,
1884            arg="this",
1885            dialect=dialect,
1886            into=Table,
1887            copy=copy,
1888            **opts,
1889        )
1890
1891    def where(
1892        self,
1893        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1894        append: bool = True,
1895        dialect: DialectType = None,
1896        copy: bool = True,
1897        **opts,
1898    ) -> Delete:
1899        """
1900        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1901
1902        Example:
1903            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1904            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1905
1906        Args:
1907            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1908                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1909                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1910            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1911                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1912            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1913            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1914            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1915
1916        Returns:
1917            Delete: the modified expression.
1918        """
1919        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1920            *expressions,
1921            instance=self,
1922            arg="where",
1923            append=append,
1924            into=Where,
1925            dialect=dialect,
1926            copy=copy,
1927            **opts,
1928        )
1929
1930
1931class Drop(Expression):
1932    arg_types = {
1933        "this": False,
1934        "kind": False,
1935        "expressions": False,
1936        "exists": False,
1937        "temporary": False,
1938        "materialized": False,
1939        "cascade": False,
1940        "constraints": False,
1941        "purge": False,
1942    }
1943
1944
1945class Filter(Expression):
1946    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1947
1948
1949class Check(Expression):
1950    pass
1951
1952
1953# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/connect-by
1954class Connect(Expression):
1955    arg_types = {"start": False, "connect": True, "nocycle": False}
1956
1957
1958class CopyParameter(Expression):
1959    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1960
1961
1962class Copy(Expression):
1963    arg_types = {
1964        "this": True,
1965        "kind": True,
1966        "files": True,
1967        "credentials": False,
1968        "format": False,
1969        "params": False,
1970    }
1971
1972
1973class Credentials(Expression):
1974    arg_types = {
1975        "credentials": False,
1976        "encryption": False,
1977        "storage": False,
1978        "iam_role": False,
1979        "region": False,
1980    }
1981
1982
1983class Prior(Expression):
1984    pass
1985
1986
1987class Directory(Expression):
1988    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
1989    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
1990
1991
1992class ForeignKey(Expression):
1993    arg_types = {
1994        "expressions": True,
1995        "reference": False,
1996        "delete": False,
1997        "update": False,
1998    }
1999
2000
2001class ColumnPrefix(Expression):
2002    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2003
2004
2005class PrimaryKey(Expression):
2006    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
2007
2008
2009# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/sql-selectinto.html
2010# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_SELECT_INTO.html#r_SELECT_INTO-examples
2011class Into(Expression):
2012    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
2013
2014
2015class From(Expression):
2016    @property
2017    def name(self) -> str:
2018        return self.this.name
2019
2020    @property
2021    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
2022        return self.this.alias_or_name
2023
2024
2025class Having(Expression):
2026    pass
2027
2028
2029class Hint(Expression):
2030    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2031
2032
2033class JoinHint(Expression):
2034    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
2035
2036
2037class Identifier(Expression):
2038    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False, "global": False, "temporary": False}
2039
2040    @property
2041    def quoted(self) -> bool:
2042        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
2043
2044    @property
2045    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
2046        return (self.this, self.quoted)
2047
2048    @property
2049    def output_name(self) -> str:
2050        return self.name
2051
2052
2053# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes-opclass.html
2054class Opclass(Expression):
2055    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2056
2057
2058class Index(Expression):
2059    arg_types = {
2060        "this": False,
2061        "table": False,
2062        "unique": False,
2063        "primary": False,
2064        "amp": False,  # teradata
2065        "params": False,
2066    }
2067
2068
2069class IndexParameters(Expression):
2070    arg_types = {
2071        "using": False,
2072        "include": False,
2073        "columns": False,
2074        "with_storage": False,
2075        "partition_by": False,
2076        "tablespace": False,
2077        "where": False,
2078    }
2079
2080
2081class Insert(DDL, DML):
2082    arg_types = {
2083        "hint": False,
2084        "with": False,
2085        "is_function": False,
2086        "this": True,
2087        "expression": False,
2088        "conflict": False,
2089        "returning": False,
2090        "overwrite": False,
2091        "exists": False,
2092        "alternative": False,
2093        "where": False,
2094        "ignore": False,
2095        "by_name": False,
2096        "stored": False,
2097    }
2098
2099    def with_(
2100        self,
2101        alias: ExpOrStr,
2102        as_: ExpOrStr,
2103        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
2104        append: bool = True,
2105        dialect: DialectType = None,
2106        copy: bool = True,
2107        **opts,
2108    ) -> Insert:
2109        """
2110        Append to or set the common table expressions.
2111
2112        Example:
2113            >>> insert("SELECT x FROM cte", "t").with_("cte", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").sql()
2114            'WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) INSERT INTO t SELECT x FROM cte'
2115
2116        Args:
2117            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2118                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2119            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
2120                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2121            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
2122            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2123                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2124            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2125            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2126            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2127
2128        Returns:
2129            The modified expression.
2130        """
2131        return _apply_cte_builder(
2132            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2133        )
2134
2135
2136class OnConflict(Expression):
2137    arg_types = {
2138        "duplicate": False,
2139        "expressions": False,
2140        "action": False,
2141        "conflict_keys": False,
2142        "constraint": False,
2143    }
2144
2145
2146class Returning(Expression):
2147    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "into": False}
2148
2149
2150# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/charset-introducer.html
2151class Introducer(Expression):
2152    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2153
2154
2155# national char, like n'utf8'
2156class National(Expression):
2157    pass
2158
2159
2160class LoadData(Expression):
2161    arg_types = {
2162        "this": True,
2163        "local": False,
2164        "overwrite": False,
2165        "inpath": True,
2166        "partition": False,
2167        "input_format": False,
2168        "serde": False,
2169    }
2170
2171
2172class Partition(Expression):
2173    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2174
2175
2176class PartitionRange(Expression):
2177    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2178
2179
2180class Fetch(Expression):
2181    arg_types = {
2182        "direction": False,
2183        "count": False,
2184        "percent": False,
2185        "with_ties": False,
2186    }
2187
2188
2189class Group(Expression):
2190    arg_types = {
2191        "expressions": False,
2192        "grouping_sets": False,
2193        "cube": False,
2194        "rollup": False,
2195        "totals": False,
2196        "all": False,
2197    }
2198
2199
2200class Lambda(Expression):
2201    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
2202
2203
2204class Limit(Expression):
2205    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "offset": False, "expressions": False}
2206
2207
2208class Literal(Condition):
2209    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
2210
2211    @property
2212    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
2213        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
2214
2215    @classmethod
2216    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
2217        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
2218
2219    @classmethod
2220    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
2221        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
2222
2223    @property
2224    def output_name(self) -> str:
2225        return self.name
2226
2227
2228class Join(Expression):
2229    arg_types = {
2230        "this": True,
2231        "on": False,
2232        "side": False,
2233        "kind": False,
2234        "using": False,
2235        "method": False,
2236        "global": False,
2237        "hint": False,
2238        "match_condition": False,  # Snowflake
2239    }
2240
2241    @property
2242    def method(self) -> str:
2243        return self.text("method").upper()
2244
2245    @property
2246    def kind(self) -> str:
2247        return self.text("kind").upper()
2248
2249    @property
2250    def side(self) -> str:
2251        return self.text("side").upper()
2252
2253    @property
2254    def hint(self) -> str:
2255        return self.text("hint").upper()
2256
2257    @property
2258    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
2259        return self.this.alias_or_name
2260
2261    def on(
2262        self,
2263        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2264        append: bool = True,
2265        dialect: DialectType = None,
2266        copy: bool = True,
2267        **opts,
2268    ) -> Join:
2269        """
2270        Append to or set the ON expressions.
2271
2272        Example:
2273            >>> import sqlglot
2274            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
2275            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
2276
2277        Args:
2278            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2279                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2280                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2281            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2282                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2283            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2284            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2285            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2286
2287        Returns:
2288            The modified Join expression.
2289        """
2290        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
2291            *expressions,
2292            instance=self,
2293            arg="on",
2294            append=append,
2295            dialect=dialect,
2296            copy=copy,
2297            **opts,
2298        )
2299
2300        if join.kind == "CROSS":
2301            join.set("kind", None)
2302
2303        return join
2304
2305    def using(
2306        self,
2307        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2308        append: bool = True,
2309        dialect: DialectType = None,
2310        copy: bool = True,
2311        **opts,
2312    ) -> Join:
2313        """
2314        Append to or set the USING expressions.
2315
2316        Example:
2317            >>> import sqlglot
2318            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
2319            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
2320
2321        Args:
2322            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2323                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2324            append: if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
2325                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2326            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2327            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2328            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2329
2330        Returns:
2331            The modified Join expression.
2332        """
2333        join = _apply_list_builder(
2334            *expressions,
2335            instance=self,
2336            arg="using",
2337            append=append,
2338            dialect=dialect,
2339            copy=copy,
2340            **opts,
2341        )
2342
2343        if join.kind == "CROSS":
2344            join.set("kind", None)
2345
2346        return join
2347
2348
2349class Lateral(UDTF):
2350    arg_types = {
2351        "this": True,
2352        "view": False,
2353        "outer": False,
2354        "alias": False,
2355        "cross_apply": False,  # True -> CROSS APPLY, False -> OUTER APPLY
2356    }
2357
2358
2359class MatchRecognizeMeasure(Expression):
2360    arg_types = {
2361        "this": True,
2362        "window_frame": False,
2363    }
2364
2365
2366class MatchRecognize(Expression):
2367    arg_types = {
2368        "partition_by": False,
2369        "order": False,
2370        "measures": False,
2371        "rows": False,
2372        "after": False,
2373        "pattern": False,
2374        "define": False,
2375        "alias": False,
2376    }
2377
2378
2379# Clickhouse FROM FINAL modifier
2380# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/from/#final-modifier
2381class Final(Expression):
2382    pass
2383
2384
2385class Offset(Expression):
2386    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
2387
2388
2389class Order(Expression):
2390    arg_types = {
2391        "this": False,
2392        "expressions": True,
2393        "interpolate": False,
2394        "siblings": False,
2395    }
2396
2397
2398# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/order-by#order-by-expr-with-fill-modifier
2399class WithFill(Expression):
2400    arg_types = {"from": False, "to": False, "step": False}
2401
2402
2403# hive specific sorts
2404# https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/Hive/LanguageManual+SortBy
2405class Cluster(Order):
2406    pass
2407
2408
2409class Distribute(Order):
2410    pass
2411
2412
2413class Sort(Order):
2414    pass
2415
2416
2417class Ordered(Expression):
2418    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": False, "nulls_first": True, "with_fill": False}
2419
2420
2421class Property(Expression):
2422    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
2423
2424
2425class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
2426    arg_types = {"this": True}
2427
2428
2429class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
2430    arg_types = {"this": True}
2431
2432
2433# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/prescriptive-guidance/latest/materialized-views-redshift/refreshing-materialized-views.html
2434class AutoRefreshProperty(Property):
2435    arg_types = {"this": True}
2436
2437
2438class BackupProperty(Property):
2439    arg_types = {"this": True}
2440
2441
2442class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
2443    arg_types = {
2444        "autotemp": False,
2445        "always": False,
2446        "default": False,
2447        "manual": False,
2448        "never": False,
2449    }
2450
2451
2452class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
2453    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
2454
2455
2456class ChecksumProperty(Property):
2457    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
2458
2459
2460class CollateProperty(Property):
2461    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
2462
2463
2464class CopyGrantsProperty(Property):
2465    arg_types = {}
2466
2467
2468class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
2469    arg_types = {
2470        "size": False,
2471        "units": False,
2472        "minimum": False,
2473        "maximum": False,
2474        "default": False,
2475    }
2476
2477
2478class DefinerProperty(Property):
2479    arg_types = {"this": True}
2480
2481
2482class DistKeyProperty(Property):
2483    arg_types = {"this": True}
2484
2485
2486class DistStyleProperty(Property):
2487    arg_types = {"this": True}
2488
2489
2490class EngineProperty(Property):
2491    arg_types = {"this": True}
2492
2493
2494class HeapProperty(Property):
2495    arg_types = {}
2496
2497
2498class ToTableProperty(Property):
2499    arg_types = {"this": True}
2500
2501
2502class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
2503    arg_types = {"this": True}
2504
2505
2506class ExternalProperty(Property):
2507    arg_types = {"this": False}
2508
2509
2510class FallbackProperty(Property):
2511    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
2512
2513
2514class FileFormatProperty(Property):
2515    arg_types = {"this": True}
2516
2517
2518class FreespaceProperty(Property):
2519    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
2520
2521
2522class GlobalProperty(Property):
2523    arg_types = {}
2524
2525
2526class IcebergProperty(Property):
2527    arg_types = {}
2528
2529
2530class InheritsProperty(Property):
2531    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2532
2533
2534class InputModelProperty(Property):
2535    arg_types = {"this": True}
2536
2537
2538class OutputModelProperty(Property):
2539    arg_types = {"this": True}
2540
2541
2542class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
2543    arg_types = {"no": False, "concurrent": False, "target": False}
2544
2545
2546class JournalProperty(Property):
2547    arg_types = {
2548        "no": False,
2549        "dual": False,
2550        "before": False,
2551        "local": False,
2552        "after": False,
2553    }
2554
2555
2556class LanguageProperty(Property):
2557    arg_types = {"this": True}
2558
2559
2560# spark ddl
2561class ClusteredByProperty(Property):
2562    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "sorted_by": False, "buckets": True}
2563
2564
2565class DictProperty(Property):
2566    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "settings": False}
2567
2568
2569class DictSubProperty(Property):
2570    pass
2571
2572
2573class DictRange(Property):
2574    arg_types = {"this": True, "min": True, "max": True}
2575
2576
2577# Clickhouse CREATE ... ON CLUSTER modifier
2578# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/distributed-ddl
2579class OnCluster(Property):
2580    arg_types = {"this": True}
2581
2582
2583class LikeProperty(Property):
2584    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
2585
2586
2587class LocationProperty(Property):
2588    arg_types = {"this": True}
2589
2590
2591class LockProperty(Property):
2592    arg_types = {"this": True}
2593
2594
2595class LockingProperty(Property):
2596    arg_types = {
2597        "this": False,
2598        "kind": True,
2599        "for_or_in": False,
2600        "lock_type": True,
2601        "override": False,
2602    }
2603
2604
2605class LogProperty(Property):
2606    arg_types = {"no": True}
2607
2608
2609class MaterializedProperty(Property):
2610    arg_types = {"this": False}
2611
2612
2613class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
2614    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
2615
2616
2617class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
2618    arg_types = {}
2619
2620
2621class OnProperty(Property):
2622    arg_types = {"this": True}
2623
2624
2625class OnCommitProperty(Property):
2626    arg_types = {"delete": False}
2627
2628
2629class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
2630    arg_types = {"this": True}
2631
2632
2633# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html
2634class PartitionBoundSpec(Expression):
2635    # this -> IN / MODULUS, expression -> REMAINDER, from_expressions -> FROM (...), to_expressions -> TO (...)
2636    arg_types = {
2637        "this": False,
2638        "expression": False,
2639        "from_expressions": False,
2640        "to_expressions": False,
2641    }
2642
2643
2644class PartitionedOfProperty(Property):
2645    # this -> parent_table (schema), expression -> FOR VALUES ... / DEFAULT
2646    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2647
2648
2649class RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty(Property):
2650    arg_types = {"this": True}
2651
2652
2653class ReturnsProperty(Property):
2654    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_table": False, "table": False}
2655
2656
2657class RowFormatProperty(Property):
2658    arg_types = {"this": True}
2659
2660
2661class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
2662    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
2663    arg_types = {
2664        "fields": False,
2665        "escaped": False,
2666        "collection_items": False,
2667        "map_keys": False,
2668        "lines": False,
2669        "null": False,
2670        "serde": False,
2671    }
2672
2673
2674class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
2675    arg_types = {"this": True, "serde_properties": False}
2676
2677
2678# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.2/sql-ref-syntax-qry-select-transform.html
2679class QueryTransform(Expression):
2680    arg_types = {
2681        "expressions": True,
2682        "command_script": True,
2683        "schema": False,
2684        "row_format_before": False,
2685        "record_writer": False,
2686        "row_format_after": False,
2687        "record_reader": False,
2688    }
2689
2690
2691class SampleProperty(Property):
2692    arg_types = {"this": True}
2693
2694
2695class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
2696    arg_types = {"this": True}
2697
2698
2699class SerdeProperties(Property):
2700    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2701
2702
2703class SetProperty(Property):
2704    arg_types = {"multi": True}
2705
2706
2707class SharingProperty(Property):
2708    arg_types = {"this": False}
2709
2710
2711class SetConfigProperty(Property):
2712    arg_types = {"this": True}
2713
2714
2715class SettingsProperty(Property):
2716    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2717
2718
2719class SortKeyProperty(Property):
2720    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
2721
2722
2723class SqlReadWriteProperty(Property):
2724    arg_types = {"this": True}
2725
2726
2727class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
2728    arg_types = {"definer": True}
2729
2730
2731class StabilityProperty(Property):
2732    arg_types = {"this": True}
2733
2734
2735class TemporaryProperty(Property):
2736    arg_types = {"this": False}
2737
2738
2739class TransformModelProperty(Property):
2740    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2741
2742
2743class TransientProperty(Property):
2744    arg_types = {"this": False}
2745
2746
2747class UnloggedProperty(Property):
2748    arg_types = {}
2749
2750
2751# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-view-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
2752class ViewAttributeProperty(Property):
2753    arg_types = {"this": True}
2754
2755
2756class VolatileProperty(Property):
2757    arg_types = {"this": False}
2758
2759
2760class WithDataProperty(Property):
2761    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
2762
2763
2764class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
2765    arg_types = {"this": True}
2766
2767
2768class WithSystemVersioningProperty(Property):
2769    # this -> history table name, expression -> data consistency check
2770    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
2771
2772
2773class Properties(Expression):
2774    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2775
2776    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
2777        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
2778        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
2779        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
2780        "CLUSTERED_BY": ClusteredByProperty,
2781        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
2782        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
2783        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
2784        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
2785        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
2786        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
2787        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
2788        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
2789        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
2790        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
2791        "LOCK": LockProperty,
2792        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
2793        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
2794        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
2795        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
2796    }
2797
2798    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
2799
2800    # CREATE property locations
2801    # Form: schema specified
2802    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2803    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2804    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
2805    #     with ([POST_WITH])
2806    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
2807    #
2808    # Form: alias selection
2809    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2810    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2811    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
2812    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
2813    class Location(AutoName):
2814        POST_CREATE = auto()
2815        POST_NAME = auto()
2816        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
2817        POST_WITH = auto()
2818        POST_ALIAS = auto()
2819        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
2820        POST_INDEX = auto()
2821        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
2822
2823    @classmethod
2824    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict: t.Dict) -> Properties:
2825        expressions = []
2826        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
2827            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
2828            if property_cls:
2829                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
2830            else:
2831                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
2832
2833        return cls(expressions=expressions)
2834
2835
2836class Qualify(Expression):
2837    pass
2838
2839
2840class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
2841    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
2842
2843
2844# https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/ias?topic=procedures-return-statement-in-sql
2845class Return(Expression):
2846    pass
2847
2848
2849class Reference(Expression):
2850    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
2851
2852
2853class Tuple(Expression):
2854    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
2855
2856    def isin(
2857        self,
2858        *expressions: t.Any,
2859        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
2860        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
2861        copy: bool = True,
2862        **opts,
2863    ) -> In:
2864        return In(
2865            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
2866            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
2867            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
2868            unnest=(
2869                Unnest(
2870                    expressions=[
2871                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
2872                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
2873                    ]
2874                )
2875                if unnest
2876                else None
2877            ),
2878        )
2879
2880
2881QUERY_MODIFIERS = {
2882    "match": False,
2883    "laterals": False,
2884    "joins": False,
2885    "connect": False,
2886    "pivots": False,
2887    "prewhere": False,
2888    "where": False,
2889    "group": False,
2890    "having": False,
2891    "qualify": False,
2892    "windows": False,
2893    "distribute": False,
2894    "sort": False,
2895    "cluster": False,
2896    "order": False,
2897    "limit": False,
2898    "offset": False,
2899    "locks": False,
2900    "sample": False,
2901    "settings": False,
2902    "format": False,
2903    "options": False,
2904}
2905
2906
2907# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/option-clause-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
2908# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-query?view=sql-server-ver16
2909class QueryOption(Expression):
2910    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
2911
2912
2913# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-table?view=sql-server-ver16
2914class WithTableHint(Expression):
2915    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2916
2917
2918# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/index-hints.html
2919class IndexTableHint(Expression):
2920    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "target": False}
2921
2922
2923# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/at-before
2924class HistoricalData(Expression):
2925    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True}
2926
2927
2928class Table(Expression):
2929    arg_types = {
2930        "this": False,
2931        "alias": False,
2932        "db": False,
2933        "catalog": False,
2934        "laterals": False,
2935        "joins": False,
2936        "pivots": False,
2937        "hints": False,
2938        "system_time": False,
2939        "version": False,
2940        "format": False,
2941        "pattern": False,
2942        "ordinality": False,
2943        "when": False,
2944        "only": False,
2945        "partition": False,
2946    }
2947
2948    @property
2949    def name(self) -> str:
2950        if isinstance(self.this, Func):
2951            return ""
2952        return self.this.name
2953
2954    @property
2955    def db(self) -> str:
2956        return self.text("db")
2957
2958    @property
2959    def catalog(self) -> str:
2960        return self.text("catalog")
2961
2962    @property
2963    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2964        return []
2965
2966    @property
2967    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2968        return []
2969
2970    @property
2971    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2972        """Return the parts of a table in order catalog, db, table."""
2973        parts: t.List[Expression] = []
2974
2975        for arg in ("catalog", "db", "this"):
2976            part = self.args.get(arg)
2977
2978            if isinstance(part, Dot):
2979                parts.extend(part.flatten())
2980            elif isinstance(part, Expression):
2981                parts.append(part)
2982
2983        return parts
2984
2985    def to_column(self, copy: bool = True) -> Alias | Column | Dot:
2986        parts = self.parts
2987        col = column(*reversed(parts[0:4]), fields=parts[4:], copy=copy)  # type: ignore
2988        alias = self.args.get("alias")
2989        if alias:
2990            col = alias_(col, alias.this, copy=copy)
2991        return col
2992
2993
2994class Union(Query):
2995    arg_types = {
2996        "with": False,
2997        "this": True,
2998        "expression": True,
2999        "distinct": False,
3000        "by_name": False,
3001        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3002    }
3003
3004    def select(
3005        self,
3006        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3007        append: bool = True,
3008        dialect: DialectType = None,
3009        copy: bool = True,
3010        **opts,
3011    ) -> Union:
3012        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3013        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
3014        this.expression.unnest().select(
3015            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
3016        )
3017        return this
3018
3019    @property
3020    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3021        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
3022
3023    @property
3024    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3025        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
3026
3027    @property
3028    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3029        return self.this.unnest().selects
3030
3031    @property
3032    def left(self) -> Expression:
3033        return self.this
3034
3035    @property
3036    def right(self) -> Expression:
3037        return self.expression
3038
3039
3040class Except(Union):
3041    pass
3042
3043
3044class Intersect(Union):
3045    pass
3046
3047
3048class Unnest(UDTF):
3049    arg_types = {
3050        "expressions": True,
3051        "alias": False,
3052        "offset": False,
3053    }
3054
3055    @property
3056    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3057        columns = super().selects
3058        offset = self.args.get("offset")
3059        if offset:
3060            columns = columns + [to_identifier("offset") if offset is True else offset]
3061        return columns
3062
3063
3064class Update(Expression):
3065    arg_types = {
3066        "with": False,
3067        "this": False,
3068        "expressions": True,
3069        "from": False,
3070        "where": False,
3071        "returning": False,
3072        "order": False,
3073        "limit": False,
3074    }
3075
3076
3077class Values(UDTF):
3078    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "alias": False}
3079
3080
3081class Var(Expression):
3082    pass
3083
3084
3085class Version(Expression):
3086    """
3087    Time travel, iceberg, bigquery etc
3088    https://trino.io/docs/current/connector/iceberg.html?highlight=snapshot#using-snapshots
3089    https://www.databricks.com/blog/2019/02/04/introducing-delta-time-travel-for-large-scale-data-lakes.html
3090    https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax#for_system_time_as_of
3091    https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/tables/querying-data-in-a-system-versioned-temporal-table?view=sql-server-ver16
3092    this is either TIMESTAMP or VERSION
3093    kind is ("AS OF", "BETWEEN")
3094    """
3095
3096    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": False}
3097
3098
3099class Schema(Expression):
3100    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
3101
3102
3103# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/select.html
3104# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/SELECT.html
3105class Lock(Expression):
3106    arg_types = {"update": True, "expressions": False, "wait": False}
3107
3108
3109class Select(Query):
3110    arg_types = {
3111        "with": False,
3112        "kind": False,
3113        "expressions": False,
3114        "hint": False,
3115        "distinct": False,
3116        "into": False,
3117        "from": False,
3118        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3119    }
3120
3121    def from_(
3122        self, expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
3123    ) -> Select:
3124        """
3125        Set the FROM expression.
3126
3127        Example:
3128            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
3129            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
3130
3131        Args:
3132            expression : the SQL code strings to parse.
3133                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3134                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
3135            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3136            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3137            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3138
3139        Returns:
3140            The modified Select expression.
3141        """
3142        return _apply_builder(
3143            expression=expression,
3144            instance=self,
3145            arg="from",
3146            into=From,
3147            prefix="FROM",
3148            dialect=dialect,
3149            copy=copy,
3150            **opts,
3151        )
3152
3153    def group_by(
3154        self,
3155        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3156        append: bool = True,
3157        dialect: DialectType = None,
3158        copy: bool = True,
3159        **opts,
3160    ) -> Select:
3161        """
3162        Set the GROUP BY expression.
3163
3164        Example:
3165            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
3166            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
3167
3168        Args:
3169            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3170                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3171                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
3172                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
3173            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3174                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
3175            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3176            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3177            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3178
3179        Returns:
3180            The modified Select expression.
3181        """
3182        if not expressions:
3183            return self if not copy else self.copy()
3184
3185        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3186            *expressions,
3187            instance=self,
3188            arg="group",
3189            append=append,
3190            copy=copy,
3191            prefix="GROUP BY",
3192            into=Group,
3193            dialect=dialect,
3194            **opts,
3195        )
3196
3197    def sort_by(
3198        self,
3199        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3200        append: bool = True,
3201        dialect: DialectType = None,
3202        copy: bool = True,
3203        **opts,
3204    ) -> Select:
3205        """
3206        Set the SORT BY expression.
3207
3208        Example:
3209            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
3210            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
3211
3212        Args:
3213            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3214                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3215                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
3216            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3217                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
3218            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3219            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3220            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3221
3222        Returns:
3223            The modified Select expression.
3224        """
3225        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3226            *expressions,
3227            instance=self,
3228            arg="sort",
3229            append=append,
3230            copy=copy,
3231            prefix="SORT BY",
3232            into=Sort,
3233            dialect=dialect,
3234            **opts,
3235        )
3236
3237    def cluster_by(
3238        self,
3239        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3240        append: bool = True,
3241        dialect: DialectType = None,
3242        copy: bool = True,
3243        **opts,
3244    ) -> Select:
3245        """
3246        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
3247
3248        Example:
3249            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
3250            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
3251
3252        Args:
3253            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3254                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3255                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
3256            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3257                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
3258            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3259            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3260            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3261
3262        Returns:
3263            The modified Select expression.
3264        """
3265        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3266            *expressions,
3267            instance=self,
3268            arg="cluster",
3269            append=append,
3270            copy=copy,
3271            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
3272            into=Cluster,
3273            dialect=dialect,
3274            **opts,
3275        )
3276
3277    def select(
3278        self,
3279        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3280        append: bool = True,
3281        dialect: DialectType = None,
3282        copy: bool = True,
3283        **opts,
3284    ) -> Select:
3285        return _apply_list_builder(
3286            *expressions,
3287            instance=self,
3288            arg="expressions",
3289            append=append,
3290            dialect=dialect,
3291            into=Expression,
3292            copy=copy,
3293            **opts,
3294        )
3295
3296    def lateral(
3297        self,
3298        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3299        append: bool = True,
3300        dialect: DialectType = None,
3301        copy: bool = True,
3302        **opts,
3303    ) -> Select:
3304        """
3305        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
3306
3307        Example:
3308            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
3309            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
3310
3311        Args:
3312            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3313                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3314            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3315                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3316            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3317            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3318            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3319
3320        Returns:
3321            The modified Select expression.
3322        """
3323        return _apply_list_builder(
3324            *expressions,
3325            instance=self,
3326            arg="laterals",
3327            append=append,
3328            into=Lateral,
3329            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
3330            dialect=dialect,
3331            copy=copy,
3332            **opts,
3333        )
3334
3335    def join(
3336        self,
3337        expression: ExpOrStr,
3338        on: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
3339        using: t.Optional[ExpOrStr | t.Collection[ExpOrStr]] = None,
3340        append: bool = True,
3341        join_type: t.Optional[str] = None,
3342        join_alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
3343        dialect: DialectType = None,
3344        copy: bool = True,
3345        **opts,
3346    ) -> Select:
3347        """
3348        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
3349
3350        Example:
3351            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
3352            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3353
3354            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
3355            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
3356
3357            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
3358
3359            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
3360            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3361
3362        Args:
3363            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3364                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3365            on: optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
3366                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3367            using: optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
3368                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3369            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3370                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3371            join_type: if set, alter the parsed join type.
3372            join_alias: an optional alias for the joined source.
3373            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3374            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3375            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3376
3377        Returns:
3378            Select: the modified expression.
3379        """
3380        parse_args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
3381
3382        try:
3383            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
3384        except ParseError:
3385            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
3386
3387        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
3388
3389        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
3390            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
3391
3392        if join_type:
3393            method: t.Optional[Token]
3394            side: t.Optional[Token]
3395            kind: t.Optional[Token]
3396
3397            method, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
3398
3399            if method:
3400                join.set("method", method.text)
3401            if side:
3402                join.set("side", side.text)
3403            if kind:
3404                join.set("kind", kind.text)
3405
3406        if on:
3407            on = and_(*ensure_list(on), dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
3408            join.set("on", on)
3409
3410        if using:
3411            join = _apply_list_builder(
3412                *ensure_list(using),
3413                instance=join,
3414                arg="using",
3415                append=append,
3416                copy=copy,
3417                into=Identifier,
3418                **opts,
3419            )
3420
3421        if join_alias:
3422            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
3423
3424        return _apply_list_builder(
3425            join,
3426            instance=self,
3427            arg="joins",
3428            append=append,
3429            copy=copy,
3430            **opts,
3431        )
3432
3433    def where(
3434        self,
3435        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3436        append: bool = True,
3437        dialect: DialectType = None,
3438        copy: bool = True,
3439        **opts,
3440    ) -> Select:
3441        """
3442        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
3443
3444        Example:
3445            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
3446            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
3447
3448        Args:
3449            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3450                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3451                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3452            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3453                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3454            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3455            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3456            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3457
3458        Returns:
3459            Select: the modified expression.
3460        """
3461        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3462            *expressions,
3463            instance=self,
3464            arg="where",
3465            append=append,
3466            into=Where,
3467            dialect=dialect,
3468            copy=copy,
3469            **opts,
3470        )
3471
3472    def having(
3473        self,
3474        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3475        append: bool = True,
3476        dialect: DialectType = None,
3477        copy: bool = True,
3478        **opts,
3479    ) -> Select:
3480        """
3481        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
3482
3483        Example:
3484            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
3485            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
3486
3487        Args:
3488            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3489                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3490                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3491            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3492                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3493            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3494            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3495            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3496
3497        Returns:
3498            The modified Select expression.
3499        """
3500        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3501            *expressions,
3502            instance=self,
3503            arg="having",
3504            append=append,
3505            into=Having,
3506            dialect=dialect,
3507            copy=copy,
3508            **opts,
3509        )
3510
3511    def window(
3512        self,
3513        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3514        append: bool = True,
3515        dialect: DialectType = None,
3516        copy: bool = True,
3517        **opts,
3518    ) -> Select:
3519        return _apply_list_builder(
3520            *expressions,
3521            instance=self,
3522            arg="windows",
3523            append=append,
3524            into=Window,
3525            dialect=dialect,
3526            copy=copy,
3527            **opts,
3528        )
3529
3530    def qualify(
3531        self,
3532        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3533        append: bool = True,
3534        dialect: DialectType = None,
3535        copy: bool = True,
3536        **opts,
3537    ) -> Select:
3538        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3539            *expressions,
3540            instance=self,
3541            arg="qualify",
3542            append=append,
3543            into=Qualify,
3544            dialect=dialect,
3545            copy=copy,
3546            **opts,
3547        )
3548
3549    def distinct(
3550        self, *ons: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], distinct: bool = True, copy: bool = True
3551    ) -> Select:
3552        """
3553        Set the OFFSET expression.
3554
3555        Example:
3556            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
3557            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
3558
3559        Args:
3560            ons: the expressions to distinct on
3561            distinct: whether the Select should be distinct
3562            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3563
3564        Returns:
3565            Select: the modified expression.
3566        """
3567        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3568        on = Tuple(expressions=[maybe_parse(on, copy=copy) for on in ons if on]) if ons else None
3569        instance.set("distinct", Distinct(on=on) if distinct else None)
3570        return instance
3571
3572    def ctas(
3573        self,
3574        table: ExpOrStr,
3575        properties: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3576        dialect: DialectType = None,
3577        copy: bool = True,
3578        **opts,
3579    ) -> Create:
3580        """
3581        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
3582
3583        Example:
3584            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
3585            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
3586
3587        Args:
3588            table: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
3589                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3590            properties: an optional mapping of table properties
3591            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input table.
3592            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3593            opts: other options to use to parse the input table.
3594
3595        Returns:
3596            The new Create expression.
3597        """
3598        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3599        table_expression = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect, **opts)
3600
3601        properties_expression = None
3602        if properties:
3603            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
3604
3605        return Create(
3606            this=table_expression,
3607            kind="TABLE",
3608            expression=instance,
3609            properties=properties_expression,
3610        )
3611
3612    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3613        """
3614        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
3615
3616        Examples:
3617            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
3618            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
3619
3620            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
3621            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
3622
3623        Args:
3624            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
3625            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3626
3627        Returns:
3628            The modified expression.
3629        """
3630        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3631        inst.set("locks", [Lock(update=update)])
3632
3633        return inst
3634
3635    def hint(self, *hints: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3636        """
3637        Set hints for this expression.
3638
3639        Examples:
3640            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").hint("BROADCAST(y)").sql(dialect="spark")
3641            'SELECT /*+ BROADCAST(y) */ x FROM tbl'
3642
3643        Args:
3644            hints: The SQL code strings to parse as the hints.
3645                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3646            dialect: The dialect used to parse the hints.
3647            copy: If `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3648
3649        Returns:
3650            The modified expression.
3651        """
3652        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3653        inst.set(
3654            "hint", Hint(expressions=[maybe_parse(h, copy=copy, dialect=dialect) for h in hints])
3655        )
3656
3657        return inst
3658
3659    @property
3660    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3661        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
3662
3663    @property
3664    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3665        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
3666
3667    @property
3668    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3669        return self.expressions
3670
3671
3672UNWRAPPED_QUERIES = (Select, Union)
3673
3674
3675class Subquery(DerivedTable, Query):
3676    arg_types = {
3677        "this": True,
3678        "alias": False,
3679        "with": False,
3680        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3681    }
3682
3683    def unnest(self):
3684        """Returns the first non subquery."""
3685        expression = self
3686        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
3687            expression = expression.this
3688        return expression
3689
3690    def unwrap(self) -> Subquery:
3691        expression = self
3692        while expression.same_parent and expression.is_wrapper:
3693            expression = t.cast(Subquery, expression.parent)
3694        return expression
3695
3696    def select(
3697        self,
3698        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3699        append: bool = True,
3700        dialect: DialectType = None,
3701        copy: bool = True,
3702        **opts,
3703    ) -> Subquery:
3704        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3705        this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
3706        return this
3707
3708    @property
3709    def is_wrapper(self) -> bool:
3710        """
3711        Whether this Subquery acts as a simple wrapper around another expression.
3712
3713        SELECT * FROM (((SELECT * FROM t)))
3714                      ^
3715                      This corresponds to a "wrapper" Subquery node
3716        """
3717        return all(v is None for k, v in self.args.items() if k != "this")
3718
3719    @property
3720    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3721        return self.this.is_star
3722
3723    @property
3724    def output_name(self) -> str:
3725        return self.alias
3726
3727
3728class TableSample(Expression):
3729    arg_types = {
3730        "this": False,
3731        "expressions": False,
3732        "method": False,
3733        "bucket_numerator": False,
3734        "bucket_denominator": False,
3735        "bucket_field": False,
3736        "percent": False,
3737        "rows": False,
3738        "size": False,
3739        "seed": False,
3740    }
3741
3742
3743class Tag(Expression):
3744    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
3745
3746    arg_types = {
3747        "this": False,
3748        "prefix": False,
3749        "postfix": False,
3750    }
3751
3752
3753# Represents both the standard SQL PIVOT operator and DuckDB's "simplified" PIVOT syntax
3754# https://duckdb.org/docs/sql/statements/pivot
3755class Pivot(Expression):
3756    arg_types = {
3757        "this": False,
3758        "alias": False,
3759        "expressions": False,
3760        "field": False,
3761        "unpivot": False,
3762        "using": False,
3763        "group": False,
3764        "columns": False,
3765        "include_nulls": False,
3766    }
3767
3768    @property
3769    def unpivot(self) -> bool:
3770        return bool(self.args.get("unpivot"))
3771
3772
3773class Window(Condition):
3774    arg_types = {
3775        "this": True,
3776        "partition_by": False,
3777        "order": False,
3778        "spec": False,
3779        "alias": False,
3780        "over": False,
3781        "first": False,
3782    }
3783
3784
3785class WindowSpec(Expression):
3786    arg_types = {
3787        "kind": False,
3788        "start": False,
3789        "start_side": False,
3790        "end": False,
3791        "end_side": False,
3792    }
3793
3794
3795class PreWhere(Expression):
3796    pass
3797
3798
3799class Where(Expression):
3800    pass
3801
3802
3803class Star(Expression):
3804    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False}
3805
3806    @property
3807    def name(self) -> str:
3808        return "*"
3809
3810    @property
3811    def output_name(self) -> str:
3812        return self.name
3813
3814
3815class Parameter(Condition):
3816    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3817
3818
3819class SessionParameter(Condition):
3820    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
3821
3822
3823class Placeholder(Condition):
3824    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False}
3825
3826    @property
3827    def name(self) -> str:
3828        return self.this or "?"
3829
3830
3831class Null(Condition):
3832    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
3833
3834    @property
3835    def name(self) -> str:
3836        return "NULL"
3837
3838
3839class Boolean(Condition):
3840    pass
3841
3842
3843class DataTypeParam(Expression):
3844    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3845
3846    @property
3847    def name(self) -> str:
3848        return self.this.name
3849
3850
3851class DataType(Expression):
3852    arg_types = {
3853        "this": True,
3854        "expressions": False,
3855        "nested": False,
3856        "values": False,
3857        "prefix": False,
3858        "kind": False,
3859    }
3860
3861    class Type(AutoName):
3862        ARRAY = auto()
3863        AGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3864        SIMPLEAGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3865        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
3866        BIGINT = auto()
3867        BIGSERIAL = auto()
3868        BINARY = auto()
3869        BIT = auto()
3870        BOOLEAN = auto()
3871        BPCHAR = auto()
3872        CHAR = auto()
3873        DATE = auto()
3874        DATE32 = auto()
3875        DATEMULTIRANGE = auto()
3876        DATERANGE = auto()
3877        DATETIME = auto()
3878        DATETIME64 = auto()
3879        DECIMAL = auto()
3880        DOUBLE = auto()
3881        ENUM = auto()
3882        ENUM8 = auto()
3883        ENUM16 = auto()
3884        FIXEDSTRING = auto()
3885        FLOAT = auto()
3886        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
3887        GEOMETRY = auto()
3888        HLLSKETCH = auto()
3889        HSTORE = auto()
3890        IMAGE = auto()
3891        INET = auto()
3892        INT = auto()
3893        INT128 = auto()
3894        INT256 = auto()
3895        INT4MULTIRANGE = auto()
3896        INT4RANGE = auto()
3897        INT8MULTIRANGE = auto()
3898        INT8RANGE = auto()
3899        INTERVAL = auto()
3900        IPADDRESS = auto()
3901        IPPREFIX = auto()
3902        IPV4 = auto()
3903        IPV6 = auto()
3904        JSON = auto()
3905        JSONB = auto()
3906        LONGBLOB = auto()
3907        LONGTEXT = auto()
3908        LOWCARDINALITY = auto()
3909        MAP = auto()
3910        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
3911        MEDIUMINT = auto()
3912        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
3913        MONEY = auto()
3914        NAME = auto()
3915        NCHAR = auto()
3916        NESTED = auto()
3917        NULL = auto()
3918        NULLABLE = auto()
3919        NUMMULTIRANGE = auto()
3920        NUMRANGE = auto()
3921        NVARCHAR = auto()
3922        OBJECT = auto()
3923        ROWVERSION = auto()
3924        SERIAL = auto()
3925        SET = auto()
3926        SMALLINT = auto()
3927        SMALLMONEY = auto()
3928        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
3929        STRUCT = auto()
3930        SUPER = auto()
3931        TEXT = auto()
3932        TINYBLOB = auto()
3933        TINYTEXT = auto()
3934        TIME = auto()
3935        TIMETZ = auto()
3936        TIMESTAMP = auto()
3937        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
3938        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
3939        TIMESTAMP_S = auto()
3940        TIMESTAMP_MS = auto()
3941        TIMESTAMP_NS = auto()
3942        TINYINT = auto()
3943        TSMULTIRANGE = auto()
3944        TSRANGE = auto()
3945        TSTZMULTIRANGE = auto()
3946        TSTZRANGE = auto()
3947        UBIGINT = auto()
3948        UINT = auto()
3949        UINT128 = auto()
3950        UINT256 = auto()
3951        UMEDIUMINT = auto()
3952        UDECIMAL = auto()
3953        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
3954        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
3955        USERDEFINED = "USER-DEFINED"
3956        USMALLINT = auto()
3957        UTINYINT = auto()
3958        UUID = auto()
3959        VARBINARY = auto()
3960        VARCHAR = auto()
3961        VARIANT = auto()
3962        XML = auto()
3963        YEAR = auto()
3964
3965    STRUCT_TYPES = {
3966        Type.NESTED,
3967        Type.OBJECT,
3968        Type.STRUCT,
3969    }
3970
3971    NESTED_TYPES = {
3972        *STRUCT_TYPES,
3973        Type.ARRAY,
3974        Type.MAP,
3975    }
3976
3977    TEXT_TYPES = {
3978        Type.CHAR,
3979        Type.NCHAR,
3980        Type.NVARCHAR,
3981        Type.TEXT,
3982        Type.VARCHAR,
3983        Type.NAME,
3984    }
3985
3986    SIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES = {
3987        Type.BIGINT,
3988        Type.INT,
3989        Type.INT128,
3990        Type.INT256,
3991        Type.MEDIUMINT,
3992        Type.SMALLINT,
3993        Type.TINYINT,
3994    }
3995
3996    UNSIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES = {
3997        Type.UBIGINT,
3998        Type.UINT,
3999        Type.UINT128,
4000        Type.UINT256,
4001        Type.UMEDIUMINT,
4002        Type.USMALLINT,
4003        Type.UTINYINT,
4004    }
4005
4006    INTEGER_TYPES = {
4007        *SIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES,
4008        *UNSIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES,
4009        Type.BIT,
4010    }
4011
4012    FLOAT_TYPES = {
4013        Type.DOUBLE,
4014        Type.FLOAT,
4015    }
4016
4017    REAL_TYPES = {
4018        *FLOAT_TYPES,
4019        Type.BIGDECIMAL,
4020        Type.DECIMAL,
4021        Type.MONEY,
4022        Type.SMALLMONEY,
4023        Type.UDECIMAL,
4024    }
4025
4026    NUMERIC_TYPES = {
4027        *INTEGER_TYPES,
4028        *REAL_TYPES,
4029    }
4030
4031    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
4032        Type.DATE,
4033        Type.DATE32,
4034        Type.DATETIME,
4035        Type.DATETIME64,
4036        Type.TIME,
4037        Type.TIMESTAMP,
4038        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
4039        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
4040        Type.TIMESTAMP_MS,
4041        Type.TIMESTAMP_NS,
4042        Type.TIMESTAMP_S,
4043        Type.TIMETZ,
4044    }
4045
4046    @classmethod
4047    def build(
4048        cls,
4049        dtype: DATA_TYPE,
4050        dialect: DialectType = None,
4051        udt: bool = False,
4052        copy: bool = True,
4053        **kwargs,
4054    ) -> DataType:
4055        """
4056        Constructs a DataType object.
4057
4058        Args:
4059            dtype: the data type of interest.
4060            dialect: the dialect to use for parsing `dtype`, in case it's a string.
4061            udt: when set to True, `dtype` will be used as-is if it can't be parsed into a
4062                DataType, thus creating a user-defined type.
4063            copy: whether to copy the data type.
4064            kwargs: additional arguments to pass in the constructor of DataType.
4065
4066        Returns:
4067            The constructed DataType object.
4068        """
4069        from sqlglot import parse_one
4070
4071        if isinstance(dtype, str):
4072            if dtype.upper() == "UNKNOWN":
4073                return DataType(this=DataType.Type.UNKNOWN, **kwargs)
4074
4075            try:
4076                data_type_exp = parse_one(
4077                    dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType, error_level=ErrorLevel.IGNORE
4078                )
4079            except ParseError:
4080                if udt:
4081                    return DataType(this=DataType.Type.USERDEFINED, kind=dtype, **kwargs)
4082                raise
4083        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
4084            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
4085        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
4086            return maybe_copy(dtype, copy)
4087        else:
4088            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
4089
4090        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
4091
4092    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
4093        """
4094        Checks whether this DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types or precision
4095        will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g. array<int> != array<float>.
4096
4097        Args:
4098            dtypes: the data types to compare this DataType to.
4099
4100        Returns:
4101            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this DataType.
4102        """
4103        for dtype in dtypes:
4104            other = DataType.build(dtype, copy=False, udt=True)
4105
4106            if (
4107                other.expressions
4108                or self.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
4109                or other.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
4110            ):
4111                matches = self == other
4112            else:
4113                matches = self.this == other.this
4114
4115            if matches:
4116                return True
4117        return False
4118
4119
4120DATA_TYPE = t.Union[str, DataType, DataType.Type]
4121
4122
4123# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-pseudo.html
4124class PseudoType(DataType):
4125    arg_types = {"this": True}
4126
4127
4128# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-oid.html
4129class ObjectIdentifier(DataType):
4130    arg_types = {"this": True}
4131
4132
4133# WHERE x <OP> EXISTS|ALL|ANY|SOME(SELECT ...)
4134class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
4135    pass
4136
4137
4138class All(SubqueryPredicate):
4139    pass
4140
4141
4142class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
4143    pass
4144
4145
4146class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
4147    pass
4148
4149
4150# Commands to interact with the databases or engines. For most of the command
4151# expressions we parse whatever comes after the command's name as a string.
4152class Command(Expression):
4153    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4154
4155
4156class Transaction(Expression):
4157    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False, "mark": False}
4158
4159
4160class Commit(Expression):
4161    arg_types = {"chain": False, "this": False, "durability": False}
4162
4163
4164class Rollback(Expression):
4165    arg_types = {"savepoint": False, "this": False}
4166
4167
4168class AlterTable(Expression):
4169    arg_types = {
4170        "this": True,
4171        "actions": True,
4172        "exists": False,
4173        "only": False,
4174        "options": False,
4175    }
4176
4177
4178class AddConstraint(Expression):
4179    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4180
4181
4182class DropPartition(Expression):
4183    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
4184
4185
4186# Binary expressions like (ADD a b)
4187class Binary(Condition):
4188    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4189
4190    @property
4191    def left(self) -> Expression:
4192        return self.this
4193
4194    @property
4195    def right(self) -> Expression:
4196        return self.expression
4197
4198
4199class Add(Binary):
4200    pass
4201
4202
4203class Connector(Binary):
4204    pass
4205
4206
4207class And(Connector):
4208    pass
4209
4210
4211class Or(Connector):
4212    pass
4213
4214
4215class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
4216    pass
4217
4218
4219class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
4220    pass
4221
4222
4223class BitwiseOr(Binary):
4224    pass
4225
4226
4227class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
4228    pass
4229
4230
4231class BitwiseXor(Binary):
4232    pass
4233
4234
4235class Div(Binary):
4236    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "typed": False, "safe": False}
4237
4238
4239class Overlaps(Binary):
4240    pass
4241
4242
4243class Dot(Binary):
4244    @property
4245    def is_star(self) -> bool:
4246        return self.expression.is_star
4247
4248    @property
4249    def name(self) -> str:
4250        return self.expression.name
4251
4252    @property
4253    def output_name(self) -> str:
4254        return self.name
4255
4256    @classmethod
4257    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
4258        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
4259        if len(expressions) < 2:
4260            raise ValueError("Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
4261
4262        return t.cast(Dot, reduce(lambda x, y: Dot(this=x, expression=y), expressions))
4263
4264    @property
4265    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
4266        """Return the parts of a table / column in order catalog, db, table."""
4267        this, *parts = self.flatten()
4268
4269        parts.reverse()
4270
4271        for arg in COLUMN_PARTS:
4272            part = this.args.get(arg)
4273
4274            if isinstance(part, Expression):
4275                parts.append(part)
4276
4277        parts.reverse()
4278        return parts
4279
4280
4281class DPipe(Binary):
4282    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "safe": False}
4283
4284
4285class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
4286    pass
4287
4288
4289class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4290    pass
4291
4292
4293class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4294    pass
4295
4296
4297# Represents e.g. := in DuckDB which is mostly used for setting parameters
4298class PropertyEQ(Binary):
4299    pass
4300
4301
4302class Distance(Binary):
4303    pass
4304
4305
4306class Escape(Binary):
4307    pass
4308
4309
4310class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
4311    pass
4312
4313
4314class GT(Binary, Predicate):
4315    pass
4316
4317
4318class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
4319    pass
4320
4321
4322class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
4323    pass
4324
4325
4326class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4327    pass
4328
4329
4330class IntDiv(Binary):
4331    pass
4332
4333
4334class Is(Binary, Predicate):
4335    pass
4336
4337
4338class Kwarg(Binary):
4339    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""
4340
4341
4342class Like(Binary, Predicate):
4343    pass
4344
4345
4346class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4347    pass
4348
4349
4350class LT(Binary, Predicate):
4351    pass
4352
4353
4354class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
4355    pass
4356
4357
4358class Mod(Binary):
4359    pass
4360
4361
4362class Mul(Binary):
4363    pass
4364
4365
4366class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4367    pass
4368
4369
4370# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/ddl-schemas.html#DDL-SCHEMAS-PATH
4371class Operator(Binary):
4372    arg_types = {"this": True, "operator": True, "expression": True}
4373
4374
4375class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
4376    pass
4377
4378
4379class Slice(Binary):
4380    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
4381
4382
4383class Sub(Binary):
4384    pass
4385
4386
4387# Unary Expressions
4388# (NOT a)
4389class Unary(Condition):
4390    pass
4391
4392
4393class BitwiseNot(Unary):
4394    pass
4395
4396
4397class Not(Unary):
4398    pass
4399
4400
4401class Paren(Unary):
4402    @property
4403    def output_name(self) -> str:
4404        return self.this.name
4405
4406
4407class Neg(Unary):
4408    pass
4409
4410
4411class Alias(Expression):
4412    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
4413
4414    @property
4415    def output_name(self) -> str:
4416        return self.alias
4417
4418
4419# BigQuery requires the UNPIVOT column list aliases to be either strings or ints, but
4420# other dialects require identifiers. This enables us to transpile between them easily.
4421class PivotAlias(Alias):
4422    pass
4423
4424
4425class Aliases(Expression):
4426    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
4427
4428    @property
4429    def aliases(self):
4430        return self.expressions
4431
4432
4433# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/query-super.html
4434class AtIndex(Expression):
4435    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4436
4437
4438class AtTimeZone(Expression):
4439    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4440
4441
4442class FromTimeZone(Expression):
4443    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4444
4445
4446class Between(Predicate):
4447    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
4448
4449
4450class Bracket(Condition):
4451    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/operators#array_subscript_operator
4452    arg_types = {
4453        "this": True,
4454        "expressions": True,
4455        "offset": False,
4456        "safe": False,
4457        "returns_list_for_maps": False,
4458    }
4459
4460    @property
4461    def output_name(self) -> str:
4462        if len(self.expressions) == 1:
4463            return self.expressions[0].output_name
4464
4465        return super().output_name
4466
4467
4468class Distinct(Expression):
4469    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
4470
4471
4472class In(Predicate):
4473    arg_types = {
4474        "this": True,
4475        "expressions": False,
4476        "query": False,
4477        "unnest": False,
4478        "field": False,
4479        "is_global": False,
4480    }
4481
4482
4483# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/procedural-language#for-in
4484class ForIn(Expression):
4485    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4486
4487
4488class TimeUnit(Expression):
4489    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
4490
4491    arg_types = {"unit": False}
4492
4493    UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME = {
4494        "D": "DAY",
4495        "H": "HOUR",
4496        "M": "MINUTE",
4497        "MS": "MILLISECOND",
4498        "NS": "NANOSECOND",
4499        "Q": "QUARTER",
4500        "S": "SECOND",
4501        "US": "MICROSECOND",
4502        "W": "WEEK",
4503        "Y": "YEAR",
4504    }
4505
4506    VAR_LIKE = (Column, Literal, Var)
4507
4508    def __init__(self, **args):
4509        unit = args.get("unit")
4510        if isinstance(unit, self.VAR_LIKE):
4511            args["unit"] = Var(
4512                this=(self.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
4513            )
4514        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4515            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name.upper()))
4516
4517        super().__init__(**args)
4518
4519    @property
4520    def unit(self) -> t.Optional[Var | IntervalSpan]:
4521        return self.args.get("unit")
4522
4523
4524class IntervalOp(TimeUnit):
4525    arg_types = {"unit": True, "expression": True}
4526
4527    def interval(self):
4528        return Interval(
4529            this=self.expression.copy(),
4530            unit=self.unit.copy(),
4531        )
4532
4533
4534# https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-interval/
4535# https://trino.io/docs/current/language/types.html#interval-day-to-second
4536# https://docs.databricks.com/en/sql/language-manual/data-types/interval-type.html
4537class IntervalSpan(DataType):
4538    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4539
4540
4541class Interval(TimeUnit):
4542    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
4543
4544
4545class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
4546    pass
4547
4548
4549class RespectNulls(Expression):
4550    pass
4551
4552
4553# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/aggregate-function-calls#max_min_clause
4554class HavingMax(Expression):
4555    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "max": True}
4556
4557
4558# Functions
4559class Func(Condition):
4560    """
4561    The base class for all function expressions.
4562
4563    Attributes:
4564        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
4565            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
4566        _sql_names (list): the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items) for this
4567            function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing as
4568            well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
4569            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
4570    """
4571
4572    is_var_len_args = False
4573
4574    @classmethod
4575    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
4576        if cls.is_var_len_args:
4577            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
4578            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
4579            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
4580            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
4581
4582            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
4583            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
4584        else:
4585            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
4586
4587        return cls(**args_dict)
4588
4589    @classmethod
4590    def sql_names(cls):
4591        if cls is Func:
4592            raise NotImplementedError(
4593                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
4594            )
4595        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
4596            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
4597        return cls._sql_names
4598
4599    @classmethod
4600    def sql_name(cls):
4601        return cls.sql_names()[0]
4602
4603    @classmethod
4604    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
4605        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
4606
4607
4608class AggFunc(Func):
4609    pass
4610
4611
4612class ParameterizedAgg(AggFunc):
4613    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True}
4614
4615
4616class Abs(Func):
4617    pass
4618
4619
4620class ArgMax(AggFunc):
4621    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4622    _sql_names = ["ARG_MAX", "ARGMAX", "MAX_BY"]
4623
4624
4625class ArgMin(AggFunc):
4626    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4627    _sql_names = ["ARG_MIN", "ARGMIN", "MIN_BY"]
4628
4629
4630class ApproxTopK(AggFunc):
4631    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "counters": False}
4632
4633
4634class Flatten(Func):
4635    pass
4636
4637
4638# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#transform
4639class Transform(Func):
4640    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4641
4642
4643class Anonymous(Func):
4644    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4645    is_var_len_args = True
4646
4647    @property
4648    def name(self) -> str:
4649        return self.this if isinstance(self.this, str) else self.this.name
4650
4651
4652class AnonymousAggFunc(AggFunc):
4653    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4654    is_var_len_args = True
4655
4656
4657# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/combinators
4658class CombinedAggFunc(AnonymousAggFunc):
4659    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "parts": True}
4660
4661
4662class CombinedParameterizedAgg(ParameterizedAgg):
4663    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True, "parts": True}
4664
4665
4666# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/hll
4667# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_HLL_function.html
4668class Hll(AggFunc):
4669    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4670    is_var_len_args = True
4671
4672
4673class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
4674    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
4675    _sql_names = ["APPROX_DISTINCT", "APPROX_COUNT_DISTINCT"]
4676
4677
4678class Array(Func):
4679    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
4680    is_var_len_args = True
4681
4682
4683# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_array
4684class ToArray(Func):
4685    pass
4686
4687
4688# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_char
4689# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/23/sqlrf/TO_CHAR-number.html
4690class ToChar(Func):
4691    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "nlsparam": False}
4692
4693
4694# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_decimal
4695# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/23/sqlrf/TO_NUMBER.html
4696class ToNumber(Func):
4697    arg_types = {
4698        "this": True,
4699        "format": False,
4700        "nlsparam": False,
4701        "precision": False,
4702        "scale": False,
4703    }
4704
4705
4706# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16#syntax
4707class Convert(Func):
4708    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "style": False}
4709
4710
4711class GenerateSeries(Func):
4712    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False, "is_end_exclusive": False}
4713
4714
4715class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
4716    pass
4717
4718
4719class ArrayUniqueAgg(AggFunc):
4720    pass
4721
4722
4723class ArrayAll(Func):
4724    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4725
4726
4727# Represents Python's `any(f(x) for x in array)`, where `array` is `this` and `f` is `expression`
4728class ArrayAny(Func):
4729    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4730
4731
4732class ArrayConcat(Func):
4733    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONCAT", "ARRAY_CAT"]
4734    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4735    is_var_len_args = True
4736
4737
4738class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
4739    pass
4740
4741
4742class ArrayContained(Binary):
4743    pass
4744
4745
4746class ArrayFilter(Func):
4747    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4748    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
4749
4750
4751class ArrayToString(Func):
4752    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
4753    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_TO_STRING", "ARRAY_JOIN"]
4754
4755
4756class ArrayOverlaps(Binary, Func):
4757    pass
4758
4759
4760class ArraySize(Func):
4761    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4762    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_SIZE", "ARRAY_LENGTH"]
4763
4764
4765class ArraySort(Func):
4766    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4767
4768
4769class ArraySum(Func):
4770    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4771
4772
4773class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
4774    pass
4775
4776
4777class Avg(AggFunc):
4778    pass
4779
4780
4781class AnyValue(AggFunc):
4782    pass
4783
4784
4785class Lag(AggFunc):
4786    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4787
4788
4789class Lead(AggFunc):
4790    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4791
4792
4793# some dialects have a distinction between first and first_value, usually first is an aggregate func
4794# and first_value is a window func
4795class First(AggFunc):
4796    pass
4797
4798
4799class Last(AggFunc):
4800    pass
4801
4802
4803class FirstValue(AggFunc):
4804    pass
4805
4806
4807class LastValue(AggFunc):
4808    pass
4809
4810
4811class NthValue(AggFunc):
4812    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": True}
4813
4814
4815class Case(Func):
4816    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
4817
4818    def when(self, condition: ExpOrStr, then: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4819        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4820        instance.append(
4821            "ifs",
4822            If(
4823                this=maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts),
4824                true=maybe_parse(then, copy=copy, **opts),
4825            ),
4826        )
4827        return instance
4828
4829    def else_(self, condition: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4830        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4831        instance.set("default", maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts))
4832        return instance
4833
4834
4835class Cast(Func):
4836    arg_types = {
4837        "this": True,
4838        "to": True,
4839        "format": False,
4840        "safe": False,
4841        "action": False,
4842    }
4843
4844    @property
4845    def name(self) -> str:
4846        return self.this.name
4847
4848    @property
4849    def to(self) -> DataType:
4850        return self.args["to"]
4851
4852    @property
4853    def output_name(self) -> str:
4854        return self.name
4855
4856    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
4857        """
4858        Checks whether this Cast's DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types
4859        like arrays or structs will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g.
4860        array<int> != array<float>.
4861
4862        Args:
4863            dtypes: the data types to compare this Cast's DataType to.
4864
4865        Returns:
4866            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this Cast's DataType.
4867        """
4868        return self.to.is_type(*dtypes)
4869
4870
4871class TryCast(Cast):
4872    pass
4873
4874
4875class CastToStrType(Func):
4876    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
4877
4878
4879class Collate(Binary, Func):
4880    pass
4881
4882
4883class Ceil(Func):
4884    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4885    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
4886
4887
4888class Coalesce(Func):
4889    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4890    is_var_len_args = True
4891    _sql_names = ["COALESCE", "IFNULL", "NVL"]
4892
4893
4894class Chr(Func):
4895    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": False, "expressions": False}
4896    is_var_len_args = True
4897    _sql_names = ["CHR", "CHAR"]
4898
4899
4900class Concat(Func):
4901    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "safe": False, "coalesce": False}
4902    is_var_len_args = True
4903
4904
4905class ConcatWs(Concat):
4906    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
4907
4908
4909# https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B13789_01/server.101/b10759/operators004.htm#i1035022
4910class ConnectByRoot(Func):
4911    pass
4912
4913
4914class Count(AggFunc):
4915    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
4916    is_var_len_args = True
4917
4918
4919class CountIf(AggFunc):
4920    _sql_names = ["COUNT_IF", "COUNTIF"]
4921
4922
4923# cube root
4924class Cbrt(Func):
4925    pass
4926
4927
4928class CurrentDate(Func):
4929    arg_types = {"this": False}
4930
4931
4932class CurrentDatetime(Func):
4933    arg_types = {"this": False}
4934
4935
4936class CurrentTime(Func):
4937    arg_types = {"this": False}
4938
4939
4940class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
4941    arg_types = {"this": False, "transaction": False}
4942
4943
4944class CurrentUser(Func):
4945    arg_types = {"this": False}
4946
4947
4948class DateAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4949    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4950
4951
4952class DateSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4953    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4954
4955
4956class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4957    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
4958    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4959
4960
4961class DateTrunc(Func):
4962    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
4963
4964    def __init__(self, **args):
4965        unit = args.get("unit")
4966        if isinstance(unit, TimeUnit.VAR_LIKE):
4967            args["unit"] = Literal.string(
4968                (TimeUnit.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
4969            )
4970        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4971            unit.set("this", Literal.string(unit.this.name.upper()))
4972
4973        super().__init__(**args)
4974
4975    @property
4976    def unit(self) -> Expression:
4977        return self.args["unit"]
4978
4979
4980class DatetimeAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4981    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4982
4983
4984class DatetimeSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4985    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4986
4987
4988class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4989    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4990
4991
4992class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4993    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4994
4995
4996class DayOfWeek(Func):
4997    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
4998
4999
5000class DayOfMonth(Func):
5001    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
5002
5003
5004class DayOfYear(Func):
5005    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
5006
5007
5008class ToDays(Func):
5009    pass
5010
5011
5012class WeekOfYear(Func):
5013    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
5014
5015
5016class MonthsBetween(Func):
5017    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "roundoff": False}
5018
5019
5020class LastDay(Func, TimeUnit):
5021    _sql_names = ["LAST_DAY", "LAST_DAY_OF_MONTH"]
5022    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": False}
5023
5024
5025class Extract(Func):
5026    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5027
5028
5029class Timestamp(Func):
5030    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "with_tz": False}
5031
5032
5033class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5034    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5035
5036
5037class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
5038    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5039
5040
5041class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5042    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMPDIFF", "TIMESTAMP_DIFF"]
5043    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5044
5045
5046class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
5047    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
5048
5049
5050class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5051    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5052
5053
5054class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
5055    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5056
5057
5058class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5059    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5060
5061
5062class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
5063    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
5064
5065
5066class DateFromParts(Func):
5067    _sql_names = ["DATE_FROM_PARTS", "DATEFROMPARTS"]
5068    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
5069
5070
5071class TimeFromParts(Func):
5072    _sql_names = ["TIME_FROM_PARTS", "TIMEFROMPARTS"]
5073    arg_types = {
5074        "hour": True,
5075        "min": True,
5076        "sec": True,
5077        "nano": False,
5078        "fractions": False,
5079        "precision": False,
5080    }
5081
5082
5083class DateStrToDate(Func):
5084    pass
5085
5086
5087class DateToDateStr(Func):
5088    pass
5089
5090
5091class DateToDi(Func):
5092    pass
5093
5094
5095# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#date
5096class Date(Func):
5097    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False, "expressions": False}
5098    is_var_len_args = True
5099
5100
5101class Day(Func):
5102    pass
5103
5104
5105class Decode(Func):
5106    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
5107
5108
5109class DiToDate(Func):
5110    pass
5111
5112
5113class Encode(Func):
5114    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
5115
5116
5117class Exp(Func):
5118    pass
5119
5120
5121# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/flatten
5122class Explode(Func):
5123    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5124    is_var_len_args = True
5125
5126
5127class ExplodeOuter(Explode):
5128    pass
5129
5130
5131class Posexplode(Explode):
5132    pass
5133
5134
5135class PosexplodeOuter(Posexplode, ExplodeOuter):
5136    pass
5137
5138
5139class Floor(Func):
5140    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
5141
5142
5143class FromBase64(Func):
5144    pass
5145
5146
5147class ToBase64(Func):
5148    pass
5149
5150
5151class GenerateDateArray(Func):
5152    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "interval": False}
5153
5154
5155class Greatest(Func):
5156    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5157    is_var_len_args = True
5158
5159
5160class GroupConcat(AggFunc):
5161    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
5162
5163
5164class Hex(Func):
5165    pass
5166
5167
5168class Xor(Connector, Func):
5169    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
5170
5171
5172class If(Func):
5173    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
5174    _sql_names = ["IF", "IIF"]
5175
5176
5177class Nullif(Func):
5178    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5179
5180
5181class Initcap(Func):
5182    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5183
5184
5185class IsNan(Func):
5186    _sql_names = ["IS_NAN", "ISNAN"]
5187
5188
5189class IsInf(Func):
5190    _sql_names = ["IS_INF", "ISINF"]
5191
5192
5193class JSONPath(Expression):
5194    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5195
5196    @property
5197    def output_name(self) -> str:
5198        last_segment = self.expressions[-1].this
5199        return last_segment if isinstance(last_segment, str) else ""
5200
5201
5202class JSONPathPart(Expression):
5203    arg_types = {}
5204
5205
5206class JSONPathFilter(JSONPathPart):
5207    arg_types = {"this": True}
5208
5209
5210class JSONPathKey(JSONPathPart):
5211    arg_types = {"this": True}
5212
5213
5214class JSONPathRecursive(JSONPathPart):
5215    arg_types = {"this": False}
5216
5217
5218class JSONPathRoot(JSONPathPart):
5219    pass
5220
5221
5222class JSONPathScript(JSONPathPart):
5223    arg_types = {"this": True}
5224
5225
5226class JSONPathSlice(JSONPathPart):
5227    arg_types = {"start": False, "end": False, "step": False}
5228
5229
5230class JSONPathSelector(JSONPathPart):
5231    arg_types = {"this": True}
5232
5233
5234class JSONPathSubscript(JSONPathPart):
5235    arg_types = {"this": True}
5236
5237
5238class JSONPathUnion(JSONPathPart):
5239    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5240
5241
5242class JSONPathWildcard(JSONPathPart):
5243    pass
5244
5245
5246class FormatJson(Expression):
5247    pass
5248
5249
5250class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
5251    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5252
5253
5254class JSONObject(Func):
5255    arg_types = {
5256        "expressions": False,
5257        "null_handling": False,
5258        "unique_keys": False,
5259        "return_type": False,
5260        "encoding": False,
5261    }
5262
5263
5264class JSONObjectAgg(AggFunc):
5265    arg_types = {
5266        "expressions": False,
5267        "null_handling": False,
5268        "unique_keys": False,
5269        "return_type": False,
5270        "encoding": False,
5271    }
5272
5273
5274# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAY.html
5275class JSONArray(Func):
5276    arg_types = {
5277        "expressions": True,
5278        "null_handling": False,
5279        "return_type": False,
5280        "strict": False,
5281    }
5282
5283
5284# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAYAGG.html
5285class JSONArrayAgg(Func):
5286    arg_types = {
5287        "this": True,
5288        "order": False,
5289        "null_handling": False,
5290        "return_type": False,
5291        "strict": False,
5292    }
5293
5294
5295# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5296# Note: parsing of JSON column definitions is currently incomplete.
5297class JSONColumnDef(Expression):
5298    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False, "path": False, "nested_schema": False}
5299
5300
5301class JSONSchema(Expression):
5302    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5303
5304
5305# # https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5306class JSONTable(Func):
5307    arg_types = {
5308        "this": True,
5309        "schema": True,
5310        "path": False,
5311        "error_handling": False,
5312        "empty_handling": False,
5313    }
5314
5315
5316class OpenJSONColumnDef(Expression):
5317    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "path": False, "as_json": False}
5318
5319
5320class OpenJSON(Func):
5321    arg_types = {"this": True, "path": False, "expressions": False}
5322
5323
5324class JSONBContains(Binary):
5325    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
5326
5327
5328class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
5329    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "only_json_types": False, "expressions": False}
5330    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
5331    is_var_len_args = True
5332
5333    @property
5334    def output_name(self) -> str:
5335        return self.expression.output_name if not self.expressions else ""
5336
5337
5338class JSONExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5339    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "only_json_types": False, "expressions": False}
5340    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5341    is_var_len_args = True
5342
5343    @property
5344    def output_name(self) -> str:
5345        return self.expression.output_name
5346
5347
5348class JSONBExtract(Binary, Func):
5349    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
5350
5351
5352class JSONBExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5353    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5354
5355
5356class JSONFormat(Func):
5357    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
5358    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
5359
5360
5361# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/json-search-functions.html#operator_member-of
5362class JSONArrayContains(Binary, Predicate, Func):
5363    _sql_names = ["JSON_ARRAY_CONTAINS"]
5364
5365
5366class ParseJSON(Func):
5367    # BigQuery, Snowflake have PARSE_JSON, Presto has JSON_PARSE
5368    _sql_names = ["PARSE_JSON", "JSON_PARSE"]
5369    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5370    is_var_len_args = True
5371
5372
5373class Least(Func):
5374    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5375    is_var_len_args = True
5376
5377
5378class Left(Func):
5379    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5380
5381
5382class Right(Func):
5383    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5384
5385
5386class Length(Func):
5387    _sql_names = ["LENGTH", "LEN"]
5388
5389
5390class Levenshtein(Func):
5391    arg_types = {
5392        "this": True,
5393        "expression": False,
5394        "ins_cost": False,
5395        "del_cost": False,
5396        "sub_cost": False,
5397    }
5398
5399
5400class Ln(Func):
5401    pass
5402
5403
5404class Log(Func):
5405    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5406
5407
5408class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
5409    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
5410
5411
5412class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
5413    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
5414
5415
5416class Lower(Func):
5417    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
5418
5419
5420class Map(Func):
5421    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
5422
5423    @property
5424    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5425        keys = self.args.get("keys")
5426        return keys.expressions if keys else []
5427
5428    @property
5429    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5430        values = self.args.get("values")
5431        return values.expressions if values else []
5432
5433
5434# Represents the MAP {...} syntax in DuckDB - basically convert a struct to a MAP
5435class ToMap(Func):
5436    pass
5437
5438
5439class MapFromEntries(Func):
5440    pass
5441
5442
5443class StarMap(Func):
5444    pass
5445
5446
5447class VarMap(Func):
5448    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
5449    is_var_len_args = True
5450
5451    @property
5452    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5453        return self.args["keys"].expressions
5454
5455    @property
5456    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5457        return self.args["values"].expressions
5458
5459
5460# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/fulltext-search.html
5461class MatchAgainst(Func):
5462    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
5463
5464
5465class Max(AggFunc):
5466    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5467    is_var_len_args = True
5468
5469
5470class MD5(Func):
5471    _sql_names = ["MD5"]
5472
5473
5474# Represents the variant of the MD5 function that returns a binary value
5475class MD5Digest(Func):
5476    _sql_names = ["MD5_DIGEST"]
5477
5478
5479class Min(AggFunc):
5480    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5481    is_var_len_args = True
5482
5483
5484class Month(Func):
5485    pass
5486
5487
5488class AddMonths(Func):
5489    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5490
5491
5492class Nvl2(Func):
5493    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
5494
5495
5496# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/bigqueryml-syntax-predict#mlpredict_function
5497class Predict(Func):
5498    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "params_struct": False}
5499
5500
5501class Pow(Binary, Func):
5502    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
5503
5504
5505class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
5506    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5507
5508
5509class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
5510    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5511
5512
5513class Quantile(AggFunc):
5514    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
5515
5516
5517class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
5518    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
5519
5520
5521class Quarter(Func):
5522    pass
5523
5524
5525class Rand(Func):
5526    _sql_names = ["RAND", "RANDOM"]
5527    arg_types = {"this": False}
5528
5529
5530class Randn(Func):
5531    arg_types = {"this": False}
5532
5533
5534class RangeN(Func):
5535    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
5536
5537
5538class ReadCSV(Func):
5539    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
5540    is_var_len_args = True
5541    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5542
5543
5544class Reduce(Func):
5545    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
5546
5547
5548class RegexpExtract(Func):
5549    arg_types = {
5550        "this": True,
5551        "expression": True,
5552        "position": False,
5553        "occurrence": False,
5554        "parameters": False,
5555        "group": False,
5556    }
5557
5558
5559class RegexpReplace(Func):
5560    arg_types = {
5561        "this": True,
5562        "expression": True,
5563        "replacement": False,
5564        "position": False,
5565        "occurrence": False,
5566        "parameters": False,
5567        "modifiers": False,
5568    }
5569
5570
5571class RegexpLike(Binary, Func):
5572    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5573
5574
5575class RegexpILike(Binary, Func):
5576    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5577
5578
5579# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.functions.split.html
5580# limit is the number of times a pattern is applied
5581class RegexpSplit(Func):
5582    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5583
5584
5585class Repeat(Func):
5586    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
5587
5588
5589# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/round-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5590# tsql third argument function == trunctaion if not 0
5591class Round(Func):
5592    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False, "truncate": False}
5593
5594
5595class RowNumber(Func):
5596    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
5597
5598
5599class SafeDivide(Func):
5600    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5601
5602
5603class SHA(Func):
5604    _sql_names = ["SHA", "SHA1"]
5605
5606
5607class SHA2(Func):
5608    _sql_names = ["SHA2"]
5609    arg_types = {"this": True, "length": False}
5610
5611
5612class Sign(Func):
5613    _sql_names = ["SIGN", "SIGNUM"]
5614
5615
5616class SortArray(Func):
5617    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
5618
5619
5620class Split(Func):
5621    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5622
5623
5624# Start may be omitted in the case of postgres
5625# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/functions-string.html @ Table 9-6
5626class Substring(Func):
5627    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
5628
5629
5630class StandardHash(Func):
5631    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5632
5633
5634class StartsWith(Func):
5635    _sql_names = ["STARTS_WITH", "STARTSWITH"]
5636    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5637
5638
5639class StrPosition(Func):
5640    arg_types = {
5641        "this": True,
5642        "substr": True,
5643        "position": False,
5644        "instance": False,
5645    }
5646
5647
5648class StrToDate(Func):
5649    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
5650
5651
5652class StrToTime(Func):
5653    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "zone": False}
5654
5655
5656# Spark allows unix_timestamp()
5657# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.3/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.functions.unix_timestamp.html
5658class StrToUnix(Func):
5659    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
5660
5661
5662# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/string.html
5663# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#str_to_map
5664class StrToMap(Func):
5665    arg_types = {
5666        "this": True,
5667        "pair_delim": False,
5668        "key_value_delim": False,
5669        "duplicate_resolution_callback": False,
5670    }
5671
5672
5673class NumberToStr(Func):
5674    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
5675
5676
5677class FromBase(Func):
5678    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5679
5680
5681class Struct(Func):
5682    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
5683    is_var_len_args = True
5684
5685
5686class StructExtract(Func):
5687    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5688
5689
5690# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/stuff-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5691# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/insert
5692class Stuff(Func):
5693    _sql_names = ["STUFF", "INSERT"]
5694    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": True, "length": True, "expression": True}
5695
5696
5697class Sum(AggFunc):
5698    pass
5699
5700
5701class Sqrt(Func):
5702    pass
5703
5704
5705class Stddev(AggFunc):
5706    pass
5707
5708
5709class StddevPop(AggFunc):
5710    pass
5711
5712
5713class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
5714    pass
5715
5716
5717class TimeToStr(Func):
5718    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False, "timezone": False}
5719
5720
5721class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
5722    pass
5723
5724
5725class TimeToUnix(Func):
5726    pass
5727
5728
5729class TimeStrToDate(Func):
5730    pass
5731
5732
5733class TimeStrToTime(Func):
5734    pass
5735
5736
5737class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
5738    pass
5739
5740
5741class Trim(Func):
5742    arg_types = {
5743        "this": True,
5744        "expression": False,
5745        "position": False,
5746        "collation": False,
5747    }
5748
5749
5750class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5751    # return_type is used to correctly cast the arguments of this expression when transpiling it
5752    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False, "return_type": False}
5753
5754    @property
5755    def return_type(self) -> DataType:
5756        return DataType.build(self.args.get("return_type") or DataType.Type.DATE)
5757
5758
5759class TsOrDsDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5760    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5761
5762
5763class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
5764    pass
5765
5766
5767class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
5768    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "safe": False}
5769
5770
5771class TsOrDsToTime(Func):
5772    pass
5773
5774
5775class TsOrDsToTimestamp(Func):
5776    pass
5777
5778
5779class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
5780    pass
5781
5782
5783class Unhex(Func):
5784    pass
5785
5786
5787# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#unix_date
5788class UnixDate(Func):
5789    pass
5790
5791
5792class UnixToStr(Func):
5793    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
5794
5795
5796# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/datetime.html
5797# presto has weird zone/hours/minutes
5798class UnixToTime(Func):
5799    arg_types = {
5800        "this": True,
5801        "scale": False,
5802        "zone": False,
5803        "hours": False,
5804        "minutes": False,
5805        "format": False,
5806    }
5807
5808    SECONDS = Literal.number(0)
5809    DECIS = Literal.number(1)
5810    CENTIS = Literal.number(2)
5811    MILLIS = Literal.number(3)
5812    DECIMILLIS = Literal.number(4)
5813    CENTIMILLIS = Literal.number(5)
5814    MICROS = Literal.number(6)
5815    DECIMICROS = Literal.number(7)
5816    CENTIMICROS = Literal.number(8)
5817    NANOS = Literal.number(9)
5818
5819
5820class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
5821    pass
5822
5823
5824class TimestampFromParts(Func):
5825    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMP_FROM_PARTS", "TIMESTAMPFROMPARTS"]
5826    arg_types = {
5827        "year": True,
5828        "month": True,
5829        "day": True,
5830        "hour": True,
5831        "min": True,
5832        "sec": True,
5833        "nano": False,
5834        "zone": False,
5835        "milli": False,
5836    }
5837
5838
5839class Upper(Func):
5840    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
5841
5842
5843class Corr(Binary, AggFunc):
5844    pass
5845
5846
5847class Variance(AggFunc):
5848    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
5849
5850
5851class VariancePop(AggFunc):
5852    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
5853
5854
5855class CovarSamp(Binary, AggFunc):
5856    pass
5857
5858
5859class CovarPop(Binary, AggFunc):
5860    pass
5861
5862
5863class Week(Func):
5864    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
5865
5866
5867class XMLTable(Func):
5868    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
5869
5870
5871class Year(Func):
5872    pass
5873
5874
5875class Use(Expression):
5876    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
5877
5878
5879class Merge(Expression):
5880    arg_types = {
5881        "this": True,
5882        "using": True,
5883        "on": True,
5884        "expressions": True,
5885        "with": False,
5886    }
5887
5888
5889class When(Func):
5890    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
5891
5892
5893# https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqljnextvaluefor.html
5894# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/next-value-for-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5895class NextValueFor(Func):
5896    arg_types = {"this": True, "order": False}
5897
5898
5899def _norm_arg(arg):
5900    return arg.lower() if type(arg) is str else arg
5901
5902
5903ALL_FUNCTIONS = subclasses(__name__, Func, (AggFunc, Anonymous, Func))
5904FUNCTION_BY_NAME = {name: func for func in ALL_FUNCTIONS for name in func.sql_names()}
5905
5906JSON_PATH_PARTS = subclasses(__name__, JSONPathPart, (JSONPathPart,))
5907
5908PERCENTILES = (PercentileCont, PercentileDisc)
5909
5910
5911# Helpers
5912@t.overload
5913def maybe_parse(
5914    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5915    *,
5916    into: t.Type[E],
5917    dialect: DialectType = None,
5918    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5919    copy: bool = False,
5920    **opts,
5921) -> E: ...
5922
5923
5924@t.overload
5925def maybe_parse(
5926    sql_or_expression: str | E,
5927    *,
5928    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5929    dialect: DialectType = None,
5930    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5931    copy: bool = False,
5932    **opts,
5933) -> E: ...
5934
5935
5936def maybe_parse(
5937    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5938    *,
5939    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5940    dialect: DialectType = None,
5941    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5942    copy: bool = False,
5943    **opts,
5944) -> Expression:
5945    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
5946
5947    Example:
5948        >>> maybe_parse("1")
5949        Literal(this=1, is_string=False)
5950        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
5951        Identifier(this=x, quoted=False)
5952
5953    Args:
5954        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
5955        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
5956        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
5957            input expression is a SQL string).
5958        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
5959            (automatically includes a space)
5960        copy: whether to copy the expression.
5961        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5962            that an input expression is a SQL string).
5963
5964    Returns:
5965        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
5966    """
5967    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
5968        if copy:
5969            return sql_or_expression.copy()
5970        return sql_or_expression
5971
5972    if sql_or_expression is None:
5973        raise ParseError("SQL cannot be None")
5974
5975    import sqlglot
5976
5977    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
5978    if prefix:
5979        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
5980
5981    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)
5982
5983
5984@t.overload
5985def maybe_copy(instance: None, copy: bool = True) -> None: ...
5986
5987
5988@t.overload
5989def maybe_copy(instance: E, copy: bool = True) -> E: ...
5990
5991
5992def maybe_copy(instance, copy=True):
5993    return instance.copy() if copy and instance else instance
5994
5995
5996def _to_s(node: t.Any, verbose: bool = False, level: int = 0) -> str:
5997    """Generate a textual representation of an Expression tree"""
5998    indent = "\n" + ("  " * (level + 1))
5999    delim = f",{indent}"
6000
6001    if isinstance(node, Expression):
6002        args = {k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if (v is not None and v != []) or verbose}
6003
6004        if (node.type or verbose) and not isinstance(node, DataType):
6005            args["_type"] = node.type
6006        if node.comments or verbose:
6007            args["_comments"] = node.comments
6008
6009        if verbose:
6010            args["_id"] = id(node)
6011
6012        # Inline leaves for a more compact representation
6013        if node.is_leaf():
6014            indent = ""
6015            delim = ", "
6016
6017        items = delim.join([f"{k}={_to_s(v, verbose, level + 1)}" for k, v in args.items()])
6018        return f"{node.__class__.__name__}({indent}{items})"
6019
6020    if isinstance(node, list):
6021        items = delim.join(_to_s(i, verbose, level + 1) for i in node)
6022        items = f"{indent}{items}" if items else ""
6023        return f"[{items}]"
6024
6025    # Indent multiline strings to match the current level
6026    return indent.join(textwrap.dedent(str(node).strip("\n")).splitlines())
6027
6028
6029def _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6030    return isinstance(expression, Expression) and not isinstance(expression, into)
6031
6032
6033def _apply_builder(
6034    expression,
6035    instance,
6036    arg,
6037    copy=True,
6038    prefix=None,
6039    into=None,
6040    dialect=None,
6041    into_arg="this",
6042    **opts,
6043):
6044    if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6045        expression = into(**{into_arg: expression})
6046    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6047    expression = maybe_parse(
6048        sql_or_expression=expression,
6049        prefix=prefix,
6050        into=into,
6051        dialect=dialect,
6052        **opts,
6053    )
6054    instance.set(arg, expression)
6055    return instance
6056
6057
6058def _apply_child_list_builder(
6059    *expressions,
6060    instance,
6061    arg,
6062    append=True,
6063    copy=True,
6064    prefix=None,
6065    into=None,
6066    dialect=None,
6067    properties=None,
6068    **opts,
6069):
6070    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6071    parsed = []
6072    for expression in expressions:
6073        if expression is not None:
6074            if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6075                expression = into(expressions=[expression])
6076
6077            expression = maybe_parse(
6078                expression,
6079                into=into,
6080                dialect=dialect,
6081                prefix=prefix,
6082                **opts,
6083            )
6084            parsed.extend(expression.expressions)
6085
6086    existing = instance.args.get(arg)
6087    if append and existing:
6088        parsed = existing.expressions + parsed
6089
6090    child = into(expressions=parsed)
6091    for k, v in (properties or {}).items():
6092        child.set(k, v)
6093    instance.set(arg, child)
6094
6095    return instance
6096
6097
6098def _apply_list_builder(
6099    *expressions,
6100    instance,
6101    arg,
6102    append=True,
6103    copy=True,
6104    prefix=None,
6105    into=None,
6106    dialect=None,
6107    **opts,
6108):
6109    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6110
6111    expressions = [
6112        maybe_parse(
6113            sql_or_expression=expression,
6114            into=into,
6115            prefix=prefix,
6116            dialect=dialect,
6117            **opts,
6118        )
6119        for expression in expressions
6120        if expression is not None
6121    ]
6122
6123    existing_expressions = inst.args.get(arg)
6124    if append and existing_expressions:
6125        expressions = existing_expressions + expressions
6126
6127    inst.set(arg, expressions)
6128    return inst
6129
6130
6131def _apply_conjunction_builder(
6132    *expressions,
6133    instance,
6134    arg,
6135    into=None,
6136    append=True,
6137    copy=True,
6138    dialect=None,
6139    **opts,
6140):
6141    expressions = [exp for exp in expressions if exp is not None and exp != ""]
6142    if not expressions:
6143        return instance
6144
6145    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6146
6147    existing = inst.args.get(arg)
6148    if append and existing is not None:
6149        expressions = [existing.this if into else existing] + list(expressions)
6150
6151    node = and_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6152
6153    inst.set(arg, into(this=node) if into else node)
6154    return inst
6155
6156
6157def _apply_cte_builder(
6158    instance: E,
6159    alias: ExpOrStr,
6160    as_: ExpOrStr,
6161    recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6162    append: bool = True,
6163    dialect: DialectType = None,
6164    copy: bool = True,
6165    **opts,
6166) -> E:
6167    alias_expression = maybe_parse(alias, dialect=dialect, into=TableAlias, **opts)
6168    as_expression = maybe_parse(as_, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6169    cte = CTE(this=as_expression, alias=alias_expression)
6170    return _apply_child_list_builder(
6171        cte,
6172        instance=instance,
6173        arg="with",
6174        append=append,
6175        copy=copy,
6176        into=With,
6177        properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
6178    )
6179
6180
6181def _combine(
6182    expressions: t.Sequence[t.Optional[ExpOrStr]],
6183    operator: t.Type[Connector],
6184    dialect: DialectType = None,
6185    copy: bool = True,
6186    **opts,
6187) -> Expression:
6188    conditions = [
6189        condition(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6190        for expression in expressions
6191        if expression is not None
6192    ]
6193
6194    this, *rest = conditions
6195    if rest:
6196        this = _wrap(this, Connector)
6197    for expression in rest:
6198        this = operator(this=this, expression=_wrap(expression, Connector))
6199
6200    return this
6201
6202
6203def _wrap(expression: E, kind: t.Type[Expression]) -> E | Paren:
6204    return Paren(this=expression) if isinstance(expression, kind) else expression
6205
6206
6207def union(
6208    left: ExpOrStr,
6209    right: ExpOrStr,
6210    distinct: bool = True,
6211    dialect: DialectType = None,
6212    copy: bool = True,
6213    **opts,
6214) -> Union:
6215    """
6216    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
6217
6218    Example:
6219        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6220        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
6221
6222    Args:
6223        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6224            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6225        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6226            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6227        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6228        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6229        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6230        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6231
6232    Returns:
6233        The new Union instance.
6234    """
6235    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6236    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6237
6238    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6239
6240
6241def intersect(
6242    left: ExpOrStr,
6243    right: ExpOrStr,
6244    distinct: bool = True,
6245    dialect: DialectType = None,
6246    copy: bool = True,
6247    **opts,
6248) -> Intersect:
6249    """
6250    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
6251
6252    Example:
6253        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6254        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
6255
6256    Args:
6257        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6258            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6259        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6260            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6261        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6262        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6263        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6264        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6265
6266    Returns:
6267        The new Intersect instance.
6268    """
6269    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6270    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6271
6272    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6273
6274
6275def except_(
6276    left: ExpOrStr,
6277    right: ExpOrStr,
6278    distinct: bool = True,
6279    dialect: DialectType = None,
6280    copy: bool = True,
6281    **opts,
6282) -> Except:
6283    """
6284    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
6285
6286    Example:
6287        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6288        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
6289
6290    Args:
6291        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6292            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6293        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6294            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6295        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6296        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6297        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6298        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6299
6300    Returns:
6301        The new Except instance.
6302    """
6303    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6304    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6305
6306    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6307
6308
6309def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
6310    """
6311    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
6312
6313    Example:
6314        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
6315        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
6316
6317    Args:
6318        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
6319            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6320        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
6321            input expression is a SQL string).
6322        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6323            that an input expression is a SQL string).
6324
6325    Returns:
6326        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
6327    """
6328    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6329
6330
6331def from_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
6332    """
6333    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
6334
6335    Example:
6336        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
6337        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
6338
6339    Args:
6340        *expression: the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
6341            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6342        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6343            input expression is a SQL string).
6344        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6345            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6346
6347    Returns:
6348        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
6349    """
6350    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6351
6352
6353def update(
6354    table: str | Table,
6355    properties: dict,
6356    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6357    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6358    dialect: DialectType = None,
6359    **opts,
6360) -> Update:
6361    """
6362    Creates an update statement.
6363
6364    Example:
6365        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
6366        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
6367
6368    Args:
6369        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
6370            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
6371        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6372        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
6373        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6374        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6375
6376    Returns:
6377        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
6378    """
6379    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
6380    update_expr.set(
6381        "expressions",
6382        [
6383            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
6384            for k, v in properties.items()
6385        ],
6386    )
6387    if from_:
6388        update_expr.set(
6389            "from",
6390            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
6391        )
6392    if isinstance(where, Condition):
6393        where = Where(this=where)
6394    if where:
6395        update_expr.set(
6396            "where",
6397            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
6398        )
6399    return update_expr
6400
6401
6402def delete(
6403    table: ExpOrStr,
6404    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6405    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6406    dialect: DialectType = None,
6407    **opts,
6408) -> Delete:
6409    """
6410    Builds a delete statement.
6411
6412    Example:
6413        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
6414        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
6415
6416    Args:
6417        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6418        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6419        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6420        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6421
6422    Returns:
6423        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
6424    """
6425    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6426    if where:
6427        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6428    if returning:
6429        delete_expr = t.cast(
6430            Delete, delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6431        )
6432    return delete_expr
6433
6434
6435def insert(
6436    expression: ExpOrStr,
6437    into: ExpOrStr,
6438    columns: t.Optional[t.Sequence[str | Identifier]] = None,
6439    overwrite: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6440    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6441    dialect: DialectType = None,
6442    copy: bool = True,
6443    **opts,
6444) -> Insert:
6445    """
6446    Builds an INSERT statement.
6447
6448    Example:
6449        >>> insert("VALUES (1, 2, 3)", "tbl").sql()
6450        'INSERT INTO tbl VALUES (1, 2, 3)'
6451
6452    Args:
6453        expression: the sql string or expression of the INSERT statement
6454        into: the tbl to insert data to.
6455        columns: optionally the table's column names.
6456        overwrite: whether to INSERT OVERWRITE or not.
6457        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6458        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6459        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6460        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6461
6462    Returns:
6463        Insert: the syntax tree for the INSERT statement.
6464    """
6465    expr = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6466    this: Table | Schema = maybe_parse(into, into=Table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6467
6468    if columns:
6469        this = Schema(this=this, expressions=[to_identifier(c, copy=copy) for c in columns])
6470
6471    insert = Insert(this=this, expression=expr, overwrite=overwrite)
6472
6473    if returning:
6474        insert = t.cast(Insert, insert.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts))
6475
6476    return insert
6477
6478
6479def condition(
6480    expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6481) -> Condition:
6482    """
6483    Initialize a logical condition expression.
6484
6485    Example:
6486        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
6487        'x = 1'
6488
6489        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
6490        >>> where = condition("x=1")
6491        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
6492        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
6493        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
6494
6495    Args:
6496        *expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6497            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6498        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6499            input expression is a SQL string).
6500        copy: Whether to copy `expression` (only applies to expressions).
6501        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6502            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6503
6504    Returns:
6505        The new Condition instance
6506    """
6507    return maybe_parse(
6508        expression,
6509        into=Condition,
6510        dialect=dialect,
6511        copy=copy,
6512        **opts,
6513    )
6514
6515
6516def and_(
6517    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6518) -> Condition:
6519    """
6520    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
6521
6522    Example:
6523        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6524        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
6525
6526    Args:
6527        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6528            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6529        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6530        copy: whether to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6531        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6532
6533    Returns:
6534        And: the new condition
6535    """
6536    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, And, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6537
6538
6539def or_(
6540    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6541) -> Condition:
6542    """
6543    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
6544
6545    Example:
6546        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6547        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
6548
6549    Args:
6550        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6551            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6552        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6553        copy: whether to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6554        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6555
6556    Returns:
6557        Or: the new condition
6558    """
6559    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6560
6561
6562def not_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Not:
6563    """
6564    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
6565
6566    Example:
6567        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
6568        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
6569
6570    Args:
6571        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6572            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6573        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6574        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6575        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6576
6577    Returns:
6578        The new condition.
6579    """
6580    this = condition(
6581        expression,
6582        dialect=dialect,
6583        copy=copy,
6584        **opts,
6585    )
6586    return Not(this=_wrap(this, Connector))
6587
6588
6589def paren(expression: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True) -> Paren:
6590    """
6591    Wrap an expression in parentheses.
6592
6593    Example:
6594        >>> paren("5 + 3").sql()
6595        '(5 + 3)'
6596
6597    Args:
6598        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6599            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6600        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6601
6602    Returns:
6603        The wrapped expression.
6604    """
6605    return Paren(this=maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy))
6606
6607
6608SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE: t.Pattern[str] = re.compile(r"^[_a-zA-Z][\w]*$")
6609
6610
6611@t.overload
6612def to_identifier(name: None, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True) -> None: ...
6613
6614
6615@t.overload
6616def to_identifier(
6617    name: str | Identifier, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True
6618) -> Identifier: ...
6619
6620
6621def to_identifier(name, quoted=None, copy=True):
6622    """Builds an identifier.
6623
6624    Args:
6625        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
6626        quoted: Whether to force quote the identifier.
6627        copy: Whether to copy name if it's an Identifier.
6628
6629    Returns:
6630        The identifier ast node.
6631    """
6632
6633    if name is None:
6634        return None
6635
6636    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
6637        identifier = maybe_copy(name, copy)
6638    elif isinstance(name, str):
6639        identifier = Identifier(
6640            this=name,
6641            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
6642        )
6643    else:
6644        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
6645    return identifier
6646
6647
6648def parse_identifier(name: str | Identifier, dialect: DialectType = None) -> Identifier:
6649    """
6650    Parses a given string into an identifier.
6651
6652    Args:
6653        name: The name to parse into an identifier.
6654        dialect: The dialect to parse against.
6655
6656    Returns:
6657        The identifier ast node.
6658    """
6659    try:
6660        expression = maybe_parse(name, dialect=dialect, into=Identifier)
6661    except ParseError:
6662        expression = to_identifier(name)
6663
6664    return expression
6665
6666
6667INTERVAL_STRING_RE = re.compile(r"\s*([0-9]+)\s*([a-zA-Z]+)\s*")
6668
6669
6670def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
6671    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
6672    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
6673        if not interval.is_string:
6674            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6675
6676        interval = interval.this
6677
6678    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
6679
6680    if not interval_parts:
6681        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6682
6683    return Interval(
6684        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
6685        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2).upper()),
6686    )
6687
6688
6689def to_table(
6690    sql_path: str | Table, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **kwargs
6691) -> Table:
6692    """
6693    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
6694    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
6695
6696    Args:
6697        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
6698        dialect: the source dialect according to which the table name will be parsed.
6699        copy: Whether to copy a table if it is passed in.
6700        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Table` expression with.
6701
6702    Returns:
6703        A table expression.
6704    """
6705    if isinstance(sql_path, Table):
6706        return maybe_copy(sql_path, copy=copy)
6707
6708    table = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
6709
6710    for k, v in kwargs.items():
6711        table.set(k, v)
6712
6713    return table
6714
6715
6716def to_column(
6717    sql_path: str | Column,
6718    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6719    dialect: DialectType = None,
6720    copy: bool = True,
6721    **kwargs,
6722) -> Column:
6723    """
6724    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Table is optional.
6725    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
6726
6727    Args:
6728        sql_path: a `[table].[column]` string.
6729        quoted: Whether or not to force quote identifiers.
6730        dialect: the source dialect according to which the column name will be parsed.
6731        copy: Whether to copy a column if it is passed in.
6732        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Column` expression with.
6733
6734    Returns:
6735        A column expression.
6736    """
6737    if isinstance(sql_path, Column):
6738        return maybe_copy(sql_path, copy=copy)
6739
6740    try:
6741        col = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Column, dialect=dialect)
6742    except ParseError:
6743        return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), quoted=quoted, **kwargs)
6744
6745    for k, v in kwargs.items():
6746        col.set(k, v)
6747
6748    if quoted:
6749        for i in col.find_all(Identifier):
6750            i.set("quoted", True)
6751
6752    return col
6753
6754
6755def alias_(
6756    expression: ExpOrStr,
6757    alias: t.Optional[str | Identifier],
6758    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
6759    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6760    dialect: DialectType = None,
6761    copy: bool = True,
6762    **opts,
6763):
6764    """Create an Alias expression.
6765
6766    Example:
6767        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
6768        'foo AS bar'
6769
6770        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
6771        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
6772
6773    Args:
6774        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
6775            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6776        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
6777            special characters it is quoted.
6778        table: Whether to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
6779        quoted: whether to quote the alias
6780        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6781        copy: Whether to copy the expression.
6782        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6783
6784    Returns:
6785        Alias: the aliased expression
6786    """
6787    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6788    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
6789
6790    if table:
6791        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
6792        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
6793
6794        if not isinstance(table, bool):
6795            for column in table:
6796                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
6797
6798        return exp
6799
6800    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
6801    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
6802    # for the complete Window expression.
6803    #
6804    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
6805
6806    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
6807        exp.set("alias", alias)
6808        return exp
6809    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)
6810
6811
6812def subquery(
6813    expression: ExpOrStr,
6814    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6815    dialect: DialectType = None,
6816    **opts,
6817) -> Select:
6818    """
6819    Build a subquery expression that's selected from.
6820
6821    Example:
6822        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
6823        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
6824
6825    Args:
6826        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
6827            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6828        alias: the alias name to use.
6829        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6830        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6831
6832    Returns:
6833        A new Select instance with the subquery expression included.
6834    """
6835
6836    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias, **opts)
6837    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6838
6839
6840@t.overload
6841def column(
6842    col: str | Identifier,
6843    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6844    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6845    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6846    *,
6847    fields: t.Collection[t.Union[str, Identifier]],
6848    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6849    copy: bool = True,
6850) -> Dot:
6851    pass
6852
6853
6854@t.overload
6855def column(
6856    col: str | Identifier,
6857    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6858    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6859    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6860    *,
6861    fields: Lit[None] = None,
6862    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6863    copy: bool = True,
6864) -> Column:
6865    pass
6866
6867
6868def column(
6869    col,
6870    table=None,
6871    db=None,
6872    catalog=None,
6873    *,
6874    fields=None,
6875    quoted=None,
6876    copy=True,
6877):
6878    """
6879    Build a Column.
6880
6881    Args:
6882        col: Column name.
6883        table: Table name.
6884        db: Database name.
6885        catalog: Catalog name.
6886        fields: Additional fields using dots.
6887        quoted: Whether to force quotes on the column's identifiers.
6888        copy: Whether to copy identifiers if passed in.
6889
6890    Returns:
6891        The new Column instance.
6892    """
6893    this = Column(
6894        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6895        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6896        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6897        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6898    )
6899
6900    if fields:
6901        this = Dot.build(
6902            (this, *(to_identifier(field, quoted=quoted, copy=copy) for field in fields))
6903        )
6904    return this
6905
6906
6907def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: DATA_TYPE, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Cast:
6908    """Cast an expression to a data type.
6909
6910    Example:
6911        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
6912        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
6913
6914    Args:
6915        expression: The expression to cast.
6916        to: The datatype to cast to.
6917        copy: Whether to copy the supplied expressions.
6918
6919    Returns:
6920        The new Cast instance.
6921    """
6922    expr = maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, **opts)
6923    data_type = DataType.build(to, copy=copy, **opts)
6924
6925    if expr.is_type(data_type):
6926        return expr
6927
6928    expr = Cast(this=expr, to=data_type)
6929    expr.type = data_type
6930
6931    return expr
6932
6933
6934def table_(
6935    table: Identifier | str,
6936    db: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6937    catalog: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6938    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6939    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6940) -> Table:
6941    """Build a Table.
6942
6943    Args:
6944        table: Table name.
6945        db: Database name.
6946        catalog: Catalog name.
6947        quote: Whether to force quotes on the table's identifiers.
6948        alias: Table's alias.
6949
6950    Returns:
6951        The new Table instance.
6952    """
6953    return Table(
6954        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted) if table else None,
6955        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted) if db else None,
6956        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted) if catalog else None,
6957        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
6958    )
6959
6960
6961def values(
6962    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
6963    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
6964    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
6965) -> Values:
6966    """Build VALUES statement.
6967
6968    Example:
6969        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
6970        "VALUES (1, '2')"
6971
6972    Args:
6973        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
6974        alias: optional alias
6975        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
6976         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
6977
6978    Returns:
6979        Values: the Values expression object
6980    """
6981    if columns and not alias:
6982        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
6983
6984    return Values(
6985        expressions=[convert(tup) for tup in values],
6986        alias=(
6987            TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
6988            if columns
6989            else (TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None)
6990        ),
6991    )
6992
6993
6994def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
6995    """Build a SQL variable.
6996
6997    Example:
6998        >>> repr(var('x'))
6999        'Var(this=x)'
7000
7001        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
7002        'Var(this=x)'
7003
7004    Args:
7005        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
7006
7007    Returns:
7008        The new variable node.
7009    """
7010    if not name:
7011        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
7012
7013    if isinstance(name, Expression):
7014        name = name.name
7015    return Var(this=name)
7016
7017
7018def rename_table(
7019    old_name: str | Table,
7020    new_name: str | Table,
7021    dialect: DialectType = None,
7022) -> AlterTable:
7023    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
7024
7025    Args:
7026        old_name: The old name of the table
7027        new_name: The new name of the table
7028        dialect: The dialect to parse the table.
7029
7030    Returns:
7031        Alter table expression
7032    """
7033    old_table = to_table(old_name, dialect=dialect)
7034    new_table = to_table(new_name, dialect=dialect)
7035    return AlterTable(
7036        this=old_table,
7037        actions=[
7038            RenameTable(this=new_table),
7039        ],
7040    )
7041
7042
7043def rename_column(
7044    table_name: str | Table,
7045    old_column_name: str | Column,
7046    new_column_name: str | Column,
7047    exists: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7048    dialect: DialectType = None,
7049) -> AlterTable:
7050    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME COLUMN... expression
7051
7052    Args:
7053        table_name: Name of the table
7054        old_column: The old name of the column
7055        new_column: The new name of the column
7056        exists: Whether to add the `IF EXISTS` clause
7057        dialect: The dialect to parse the table/column.
7058
7059    Returns:
7060        Alter table expression
7061    """
7062    table = to_table(table_name, dialect=dialect)
7063    old_column = to_column(old_column_name, dialect=dialect)
7064    new_column = to_column(new_column_name, dialect=dialect)
7065    return AlterTable(
7066        this=table,
7067        actions=[
7068            RenameColumn(this=old_column, to=new_column, exists=exists),
7069        ],
7070    )
7071
7072
7073def convert(value: t.Any, copy: bool = False) -> Expression:
7074    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
7075
7076    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
7077
7078    Args:
7079        value: A python object.
7080        copy: Whether to copy `value` (only applies to Expressions and collections).
7081
7082    Returns:
7083        The equivalent expression object.
7084    """
7085    if isinstance(value, Expression):
7086        return maybe_copy(value, copy)
7087    if isinstance(value, str):
7088        return Literal.string(value)
7089    if isinstance(value, bool):
7090        return Boolean(this=value)
7091    if value is None or (isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value)):
7092        return null()
7093    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
7094        return Literal.number(value)
7095    if isinstance(value, bytes):
7096        return HexString(this=value.hex())
7097    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
7098        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
7099            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat(
7100                sep=" "
7101            )
7102        )
7103        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
7104    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
7105        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
7106        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
7107    if isinstance(value, tuple):
7108        if hasattr(value, "_fields"):
7109            return Struct(
7110                expressions=[
7111                    PropertyEQ(
7112                        this=to_identifier(k), expression=convert(getattr(value, k), copy=copy)
7113                    )
7114                    for k in value._fields
7115                ]
7116            )
7117        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
7118    if isinstance(value, list):
7119        return Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
7120    if isinstance(value, dict):
7121        return Map(
7122            keys=Array(expressions=[convert(k, copy=copy) for k in value]),
7123            values=Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value.values()]),
7124        )
7125    if hasattr(value, "__dict__"):
7126        return Struct(
7127            expressions=[
7128                PropertyEQ(this=to_identifier(k), expression=convert(v, copy=copy))
7129                for k, v in value.__dict__.items()
7130            ]
7131        )
7132    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")
7133
7134
7135def replace_children(expression: Expression, fun: t.Callable, *args, **kwargs) -> None:
7136    """
7137    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
7138    """
7139    for k, v in tuple(expression.args.items()):
7140        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
7141
7142        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
7143        new_child_nodes = []
7144
7145        for cn in child_nodes:
7146            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
7147                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
7148                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
7149            else:
7150                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
7151
7152        expression.set(k, new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0))
7153
7154
7155def replace_tree(
7156    expression: Expression,
7157    fun: t.Callable,
7158    prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None,
7159) -> Expression:
7160    """
7161    Replace an entire tree with the result of function calls on each node.
7162
7163    This will be traversed in reverse dfs, so leaves first.
7164    If new nodes are created as a result of function calls, they will also be traversed.
7165    """
7166    stack = list(expression.dfs(prune=prune))
7167
7168    while stack:
7169        node = stack.pop()
7170        new_node = fun(node)
7171
7172        if new_node is not node:
7173            node.replace(new_node)
7174
7175            if isinstance(new_node, Expression):
7176                stack.append(new_node)
7177
7178    return new_node
7179
7180
7181def column_table_names(expression: Expression, exclude: str = "") -> t.Set[str]:
7182    """
7183    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
7184
7185    Example:
7186        >>> import sqlglot
7187        >>> sorted(column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e")))
7188        ['a', 'c']
7189
7190    Args:
7191        expression: expression to find table names.
7192        exclude: a table name to exclude
7193
7194    Returns:
7195        A list of unique names.
7196    """
7197    return {
7198        table
7199        for table in (column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column))
7200        if table and table != exclude
7201    }
7202
7203
7204def table_name(table: Table | str, dialect: DialectType = None, identify: bool = False) -> str:
7205    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
7206
7207    Args:
7208        table: Table expression node or string.
7209        dialect: The dialect to generate the table name for.
7210        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
7211            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
7212            True: Always quote.
7213
7214    Examples:
7215        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7216        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
7217        'a.b.c'
7218
7219    Returns:
7220        The table name.
7221    """
7222
7223    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
7224
7225    if not table:
7226        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
7227
7228    return ".".join(
7229        (
7230            part.sql(dialect=dialect, identify=True, copy=False)
7231            if identify or not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(part.name)
7232            else part.name
7233        )
7234        for part in table.parts
7235    )
7236
7237
7238def normalize_table_name(table: str | Table, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> str:
7239    """Returns a case normalized table name without quotes.
7240
7241    Args:
7242        table: the table to normalize
7243        dialect: the dialect to use for normalization rules
7244        copy: whether to copy the expression.
7245
7246    Examples:
7247        >>> normalize_table_name("`A-B`.c", dialect="bigquery")
7248        'A-B.c'
7249    """
7250    from sqlglot.optimizer.normalize_identifiers import normalize_identifiers
7251
7252    return ".".join(
7253        p.name
7254        for p in normalize_identifiers(
7255            to_table(table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy), dialect=dialect
7256        ).parts
7257    )
7258
7259
7260def replace_tables(
7261    expression: E, mapping: t.Dict[str, str], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True
7262) -> E:
7263    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
7264
7265    Args:
7266        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
7267        mapping: mapping of table names.
7268        dialect: the dialect of the mapping table
7269        copy: whether to copy the expression.
7270
7271    Examples:
7272        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7273        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
7274        'SELECT * FROM c /* a.b */'
7275
7276    Returns:
7277        The mapped expression.
7278    """
7279
7280    mapping = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in mapping.items()}
7281
7282    def _replace_tables(node: Expression) -> Expression:
7283        if isinstance(node, Table):
7284            original = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
7285            new_name = mapping.get(original)
7286
7287            if new_name:
7288                table = to_table(
7289                    new_name,
7290                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in TABLE_PARTS},
7291                    dialect=dialect,
7292                )
7293                table.add_comments([original])
7294                return table
7295        return node
7296
7297    return expression.transform(_replace_tables, copy=copy)  # type: ignore
7298
7299
7300def replace_placeholders(expression: Expression, *args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
7301    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
7302
7303    Args:
7304        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
7305        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
7306        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
7307
7308    Examples:
7309        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7310        >>> replace_placeholders(
7311        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
7312        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
7313        ... ).sql()
7314        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
7315
7316    Returns:
7317        The mapped expression.
7318    """
7319
7320    def _replace_placeholders(node: Expression, args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
7321        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
7322            if node.this:
7323                new_name = kwargs.get(node.this)
7324                if new_name is not None:
7325                    return convert(new_name)
7326            else:
7327                try:
7328                    return convert(next(args))
7329                except StopIteration:
7330                    pass
7331        return node
7332
7333    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)
7334
7335
7336def expand(
7337    expression: Expression,
7338    sources: t.Dict[str, Query],
7339    dialect: DialectType = None,
7340    copy: bool = True,
7341) -> Expression:
7342    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
7343
7344    Examples:
7345        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
7346        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
7347        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
7348
7349        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
7350        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
7351
7352    Args:
7353        expression: The expression to expand.
7354        sources: A dictionary of name to Queries.
7355        dialect: The dialect of the sources dict.
7356        copy: Whether to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
7357
7358    Returns:
7359        The transformed expression.
7360    """
7361    sources = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in sources.items()}
7362
7363    def _expand(node: Expression):
7364        if isinstance(node, Table):
7365            name = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
7366            source = sources.get(name)
7367            if source:
7368                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
7369                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
7370                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
7371        return node
7372
7373    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)
7374
7375
7376def func(name: str, *args, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
7377    """
7378    Returns a Func expression.
7379
7380    Examples:
7381        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
7382        'ABS(5)'
7383
7384        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
7385        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
7386
7387    Args:
7388        name: the name of the function to build.
7389        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
7390        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7391        dialect: the source dialect.
7392        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7393
7394    Note:
7395        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
7396
7397    Returns:
7398        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
7399        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
7400    """
7401    if args and kwargs:
7402        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
7403
7404    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
7405
7406    dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
7407
7408    converted: t.List[Expression] = [maybe_parse(arg, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for arg in args]
7409    kwargs = {key: maybe_parse(value, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
7410
7411    constructor = dialect.parser_class.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
7412    if constructor:
7413        if converted:
7414            if "dialect" in constructor.__code__.co_varnames:
7415                function = constructor(converted, dialect=dialect)
7416            else:
7417                function = constructor(converted)
7418        elif constructor.__name__ == "from_arg_list":
7419            function = constructor.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
7420        else:
7421            constructor = FUNCTION_BY_NAME.get(name.upper())
7422            if constructor:
7423                function = constructor(**kwargs)
7424            else:
7425                raise ValueError(
7426                    f"Unable to convert '{name}' into a Func. Either manually construct "
7427                    "the Func expression of interest or parse the function call."
7428                )
7429    else:
7430        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
7431        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
7432
7433    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
7434        raise ValueError(error_message)
7435
7436    return function
7437
7438
7439def case(
7440    expression: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
7441    **opts,
7442) -> Case:
7443    """
7444    Initialize a CASE statement.
7445
7446    Example:
7447        case().when("a = 1", "foo").else_("bar")
7448
7449    Args:
7450        expression: Optionally, the input expression (not all dialects support this)
7451        **opts: Extra keyword arguments for parsing `expression`
7452    """
7453    if expression is not None:
7454        this = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
7455    else:
7456        this = None
7457    return Case(this=this, ifs=[])
7458
7459
7460def array(
7461    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7462) -> Array:
7463    """
7464    Returns an array.
7465
7466    Examples:
7467        >>> array(1, 'x').sql()
7468        'ARRAY(1, x)'
7469
7470    Args:
7471        expressions: the expressions to add to the array.
7472        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7473        dialect: the source dialect.
7474        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7475
7476    Returns:
7477        An array expression.
7478    """
7479    return Array(
7480        expressions=[
7481            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7482            for expression in expressions
7483        ]
7484    )
7485
7486
7487def tuple_(
7488    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7489) -> Tuple:
7490    """
7491    Returns an tuple.
7492
7493    Examples:
7494        >>> tuple_(1, 'x').sql()
7495        '(1, x)'
7496
7497    Args:
7498        expressions: the expressions to add to the tuple.
7499        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7500        dialect: the source dialect.
7501        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7502
7503    Returns:
7504        A tuple expression.
7505    """
7506    return Tuple(
7507        expressions=[
7508            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7509            for expression in expressions
7510        ]
7511    )
7512
7513
7514def true() -> Boolean:
7515    """
7516    Returns a true Boolean expression.
7517    """
7518    return Boolean(this=True)
7519
7520
7521def false() -> Boolean:
7522    """
7523    Returns a false Boolean expression.
7524    """
7525    return Boolean(this=False)
7526
7527
7528def null() -> Null:
7529    """
7530    Returns a Null expression.
7531    """
7532    return Null()
7533
7534
7535NONNULL_CONSTANTS = (
7536    Literal,
7537    Boolean,
7538)
7539
7540CONSTANTS = (
7541    Literal,
7542    Boolean,
7543    Null,
7544)