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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  60        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  62        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  63        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  64        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  65        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  66        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  67        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  68        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  69        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  71        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  72        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  73        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  74        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  75        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  76        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  77        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  78        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  80        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  84        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92    }
  93
  94    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  95    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  96
  97    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  98    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
  99
 100    # Always do union distinct or union all
 101    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 102
 103    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 104    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 107    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 108
 109    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 110    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 113    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 114
 115    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 116    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 119    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 122    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 125    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 126
 127    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 128    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 129
 130    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 131    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 132
 133    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 134    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 135
 136    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 137    JOIN_HINTS = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 140    TABLE_HINTS = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 143    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 144
 145    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 146        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 147        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 153    }
 154
 155    STAR_MAPPING = {
 156        "except": "EXCEPT",
 157        "replace": "REPLACE",
 158    }
 159
 160    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 161        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 162        "seconds": "second",
 163        "minutes": "minute",
 164        "hours": "hour",
 165        "days": "day",
 166        "weeks": "week",
 167        "months": "month",
 168        "quarters": "quarter",
 169        "years": "year",
 170    }
 171
 172    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 173
 174    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 175
 176    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 177
 178    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 179        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 180        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 181        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 182        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 183        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 184        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 188        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 195        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 196        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 197        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 198        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 199        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 204        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 206        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 207        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 208        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 209        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 211        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 213        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 222        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 226        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 231        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232    }
 233
 234    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 235    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 236
 237    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 238
 239    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 240
 241    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 242
 243    # Autofilled
 244    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 245    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 246    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 247    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 248    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 249    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 250    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 251    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 252    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 253
 254    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 255    QUOTE_START = "'"
 256    QUOTE_END = "'"
 257    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 258    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 259    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 260    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 261
 262    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 263    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 264    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 265    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 266    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 267    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 268    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 269    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 270    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 271
 272    __slots__ = (
 273        "pretty",
 274        "identify",
 275        "normalize",
 276        "pad",
 277        "_indent",
 278        "normalize_functions",
 279        "unsupported_level",
 280        "max_unsupported",
 281        "leading_comma",
 282        "max_text_width",
 283        "comments",
 284        "unsupported_messages",
 285        "_escaped_quote_end",
 286        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 287        "_cache",
 288    )
 289
 290    def __init__(
 291        self,
 292        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 293        identify: str | bool = False,
 294        normalize: bool = False,
 295        pad: int = 2,
 296        indent: int = 2,
 297        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 298        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 299        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 300        leading_comma: bool = False,
 301        max_text_width: int = 80,
 302        comments: bool = True,
 303    ):
 304        import sqlglot
 305
 306        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 307        self.identify = identify
 308        self.normalize = normalize
 309        self.pad = pad
 310        self._indent = indent
 311        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 312        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 313        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 314        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 315        self.comments = comments
 316
 317        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 318        self.normalize_functions = (
 319            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 320        )
 321
 322        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 323        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 324        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 325        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 326
 327    def generate(
 328        self,
 329        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 330        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 331    ) -> str:
 332        """
 333        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 334
 335        Args:
 336            expression: The syntax tree.
 337            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 338                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 339
 340        Returns:
 341            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 342        """
 343        if cache is not None:
 344            self._cache = cache
 345
 346        self.unsupported_messages = []
 347        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 348        self._cache = None
 349
 350        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 351            return sql
 352
 353        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 354            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 355                logger.warning(msg)
 356        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 357            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 358
 359        if self.pretty:
 360            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 361        return sql
 362
 363    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 364        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 365            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 366        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 367
 368    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 369        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 370
 371    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 372        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 373
 374    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 375        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 376        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 377        return comment
 378
 379    def maybe_comment(
 380        self,
 381        sql: str,
 382        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 383        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 384    ) -> str:
 385        comments = (
 386            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 387            if self.comments
 388            else None
 389        )
 390
 391        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 392            return sql
 393
 394        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 395        comments_sql = sep.join(
 396            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 397        )
 398
 399        if not comments_sql:
 400            return sql
 401
 402        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 403            return (
 404                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 405                if sql[0].isspace()
 406                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 407            )
 408
 409        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 410
 411    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 412        this_sql = self.indent(
 413            self.sql(expression)
 414            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 415            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 416            level=1,
 417            pad=0,
 418        )
 419        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 420
 421    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 422        original = self.identify
 423        self.identify = False
 424        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 425        self.identify = original
 426        return result
 427
 428    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 429        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 430            return name.upper()
 431        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 432            return name.lower()
 433        return name
 434
 435    def indent(
 436        self,
 437        sql: str,
 438        level: int = 0,
 439        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 440        skip_first: bool = False,
 441        skip_last: bool = False,
 442    ) -> str:
 443        if not self.pretty:
 444            return sql
 445
 446        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 447        lines = sql.split("\n")
 448
 449        return "\n".join(
 450            line
 451            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 452            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 453            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 454        )
 455
 456    def sql(
 457        self,
 458        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 459        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 460        comment: bool = True,
 461    ) -> str:
 462        if not expression:
 463            return ""
 464
 465        if isinstance(expression, str):
 466            return expression
 467
 468        if key:
 469            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 470
 471        if self._cache is not None:
 472            expression_id = hash(expression)
 473
 474            if expression_id in self._cache:
 475                return self._cache[expression_id]
 476
 477        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 478
 479        if callable(transform):
 480            sql = transform(self, expression)
 481        elif transform:
 482            sql = transform
 483        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 484            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 485
 486            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 487                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 488            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 489                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 490            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 491                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 492            else:
 493                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 494        else:
 495            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 496
 497        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 498
 499        if self._cache is not None:
 500            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 501        return sql
 502
 503    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 504        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 505        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 506        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 507
 508    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 509        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 510        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 511        options = expression.args.get("options")
 512        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 513        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 514        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 515        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 516        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 517
 518    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 519        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 520            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 521        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 522        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 523
 524    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 525        return ".".join(
 526            self.sql(part)
 527            for part in (
 528                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 529                expression.args.get("db"),
 530                expression.args.get("table"),
 531                expression.args.get("this"),
 532            )
 533            if part
 534        )
 535
 536    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 538        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 539        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 540        return f"{position}{this}"
 541
 542    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 543        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 544        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 545        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 546        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 547        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 548        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 549        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 550        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 551
 552        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 553
 554    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 556        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 557        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 558
 559    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 560        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 561
 562    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 563        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 564            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 565        else:
 566            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 567
 568        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 569
 570    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 571        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 572    ) -> str:
 573        this = ""
 574        if expression.this is not None:
 575            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 576            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 577
 578        start = expression.args.get("start")
 579        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 580        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 581        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 582        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 583        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 584        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 585        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 586        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 587        cycle_sql = ""
 588
 589        if cycle is not None:
 590            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 591            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 592
 593        sequence_opts = ""
 594        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 595            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 596            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 597
 598        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 599        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 600
 601        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 602
 603    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 604        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 605
 606    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 607        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 608        if desc is not None:
 609            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 610        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 611
 612    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 614        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 615        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 616
 617    def createable_sql(
 618        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 619    ) -> str:
 620        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 621
 622    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 624        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 625        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 626
 627        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 628
 629        properties_sql = ""
 630        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 631            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 632        ):
 633            properties_sql = self.sql(
 634                exp.Properties(
 635                    expressions=[
 636                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 638                    ]
 639                )
 640            )
 641
 642        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 643        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 644        if expression_sql:
 645            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 646
 647            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 648                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 649                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 650                        exp.Properties(
 651                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 652                        ),
 653                        wrapped=False,
 654                    )
 655                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 656                else:
 657                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 658
 659        postindex_props_sql = ""
 660        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 661            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 662                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 663                wrapped=False,
 664                prefix=" ",
 665            )
 666
 667        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 668        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 669        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 670
 671        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 672        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 673
 674        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 675        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 676            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 677                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 678                sep=" ",
 679                prefix=" ",
 680                wrapped=False,
 681            )
 682
 683        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 684
 685        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 686        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 687            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 688                exp.Properties(
 689                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 690                ),
 691                sep=" ",
 692                prefix=" ",
 693                wrapped=False,
 694            )
 695
 696        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 697        no_schema_binding = (
 698            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 699        )
 700
 701        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 702        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 703
 704        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 705        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 706
 707    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 709        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 710
 711        if when:
 712            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 713            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 714            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 715
 716        return f"CLONE {this}"
 717
 718    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 719        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 720
 721    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 722        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 723        if with_:
 724            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 725        return sql
 726
 727    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 728        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 729        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 730
 731        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 732
 733    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 734        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 735        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 736
 737    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 738        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 739        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 740        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 741        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 742
 743    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 745        if self.BIT_START:
 746            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 747        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 748
 749    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 751        if self.HEX_START:
 752            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 753        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 754
 755    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 757        if self.BYTE_START:
 758            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 759        return this
 760
 761    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 762        if self.RAW_START:
 763            return f"{self.RAW_START}{expression.name}{self.RAW_END}"
 764        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 765
 766    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 768        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 769        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 770        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 771
 772    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 773        type_value = expression.this
 774        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 775        nested = ""
 776        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 777        values = ""
 778        if interior:
 779            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 780                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 781                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 782                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 783                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 784                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 785            else:
 786                nested = f"({interior})"
 787
 788        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 789
 790    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 791        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 792        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 793        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 794        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 795
 796    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 799        using_sql = (
 800            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 801            if expression.args.get("using")
 802            else ""
 803        )
 804        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 805        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 806        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 808
 809    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 811        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 812        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 813        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 814        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 815        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 816        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 817        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 818        return (
 819            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 820        )
 821
 822    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 823        return self.prepend_ctes(
 824            expression,
 825            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 826        )
 827
 828    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 829        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 830
 831    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 832        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 833        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 834        count = expression.args.get("count")
 835        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 836        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 837            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 838        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 839        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 840
 841    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 844        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 845
 846    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 847        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 848            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 849        return ""
 850
 851    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 852        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 853        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 854        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 855        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 856        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 857        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 858        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 859        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 860        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 861        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 862        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 863        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 864        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 865        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 866
 867    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 868        text = expression.name
 869        lower = text.lower()
 870        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 871        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 872        if (
 873            expression.quoted
 874            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 875            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 876            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 877        ):
 878            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 879        return text
 880
 881    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 882        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 883        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 884        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 885        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 886        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 887
 888    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 889        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 890        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 891
 892    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 893        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 894
 895    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 896        root_properties = []
 897        with_properties = []
 898
 899        for p in expression.expressions:
 900            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 901            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 902                with_properties.append(p)
 903            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 904                root_properties.append(p)
 905
 906        return self.root_properties(
 907            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 908        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 909
 910    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 911        if properties.expressions:
 912            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 913        return ""
 914
 915    def properties(
 916        self,
 917        properties: exp.Properties,
 918        prefix: str = "",
 919        sep: str = ", ",
 920        suffix: str = "",
 921        wrapped: bool = True,
 922    ) -> str:
 923        if properties.expressions:
 924            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 925            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 926            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 927        return ""
 928
 929    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 930        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 931
 932    def locate_properties(
 933        self, properties: exp.Properties
 934    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 935        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 936            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 937        }
 938
 939        for p in properties.expressions:
 940            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 941            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 942                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 943            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 944                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 945            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 946                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 947            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 948                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 949            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 950                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 951            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 952                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 953            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 954                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 955            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 956                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 957
 958        return properties_locs
 959
 960    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 961        property_cls = expression.__class__
 962        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 963            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 964
 965        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 966        if not property_name:
 967            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 968
 969        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 970
 971    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 972        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 973        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 974        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 975
 976    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 977        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 978        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 979        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 980
 981    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
 982        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 983        local = expression.args.get("local")
 984        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
 985        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
 986        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
 987        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
 988        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
 989
 990    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
 991        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
 992        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
 993        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
 994
 995    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
 996        if expression.args.get("default"):
 997            property = "DEFAULT"
 998        elif expression.args.get("on"):
 999            property = "ON"
1000        else:
1001            property = "OFF"
1002        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1003
1004    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1005        if expression.args.get("no"):
1006            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1007        if expression.args.get("default"):
1008            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1009
1010        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1011        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1012
1013    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1014        default = expression.args.get("default")
1015        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1016        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1017        if default or minimum or maximum:
1018            if default:
1019                prop = "DEFAULT"
1020            elif minimum:
1021                prop = "MINIMUM"
1022            else:
1023                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1024            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1025        units = expression.args.get("units")
1026        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1027        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1028
1029    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1030        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1031        always = expression.args.get("always")
1032        default = expression.args.get("default")
1033        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1034        never = expression.args.get("never")
1035
1036        if autotemp is not None:
1037            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1038        elif always:
1039            prop = "ALWAYS"
1040        elif default:
1041            prop = "DEFAULT"
1042        elif manual:
1043            prop = "MANUAL"
1044        elif never:
1045            prop = "NEVER"
1046        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1047
1048    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1049        no = expression.args.get("no")
1050        no = " NO" if no else ""
1051        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1052        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1053
1054        for_ = ""
1055        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1056            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1057        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1058            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1059        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1060            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1061        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1062
1063    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1064        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1065        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1066        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1067        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1068        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1069        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1070
1071    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1072        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1073        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1074        statistics_sql = ""
1075        if statistics is not None:
1076            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1077        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1078
1079    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1080        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1081
1082        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1083            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1084        else:
1085            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1086
1087        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1088        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1089        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1090
1091        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1092        partition_sql = (
1093            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1094        )
1095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1096        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1097        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1098        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1099        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1100        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1101
1102    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1103        return self.prepend_ctes(
1104            expression,
1105            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1106        )
1107
1108    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1109        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1110
1111    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1112        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1113
1114    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1115        return expression.name.upper()
1116
1117    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1118        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1119        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1120        if constraint:
1121            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1122        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1123        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1124        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1125        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1126        if expressions:
1127            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1128        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1129
1130    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1131        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1132
1133    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1134        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1135        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1136        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1137        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1138        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1139        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1140        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1141        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1142        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1143        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1144        null = expression.args.get("null")
1145        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1146        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1147
1148    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1149        table = ".".join(
1150            part
1151            for part in [
1152                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1153                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1154                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1155            ]
1156            if part
1157        )
1158
1159        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1160        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1161        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1162        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1163        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1164        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1165        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1166        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1167        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1168        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1169
1170        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1171
1172    def tablesample_sql(
1173        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1174    ) -> str:
1175        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1176            table = expression.this.copy()
1177            table.set("alias", None)
1178            this = self.sql(table)
1179            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1180        else:
1181            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1182            alias = ""
1183        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1184        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1185        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1186        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1187        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1188        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1189        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1190        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1191        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1192        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1193        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1194        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1195        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1196            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1197        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1198        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1199        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1200        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1201
1202    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1203        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1204
1205        if expression.this:
1206            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1208            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1209            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1210            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1211            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1212
1213        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1214        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1215        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1216        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1217        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1218        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1219
1220    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1221        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1222
1223    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1227        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1228        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1229        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1230        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1231
1232    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1233        args = self.expressions(expression)
1234        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1235        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1236        values = (
1237            f"({values})"
1238            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1239            else values
1240        )
1241        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1242
1243    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1244        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1245
1246    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1247        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1248        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1249        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1250
1251    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1252        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1253
1254    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1255        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1256        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1257        grouping_sets = (
1258            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1259        )
1260
1261        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1262        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1263            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1264        else:
1265            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1266            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1267
1268        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1269        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1270            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1271        else:
1272            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1273            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1274
1275        groupings = csv(
1276            grouping_sets,
1277            cube_sql,
1278            rollup_sql,
1279            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1280            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1281        )
1282
1283        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1284            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1285
1286        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1287
1288    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1289        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1290        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1291
1292    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1293        op_sql = " ".join(
1294            op
1295            for op in (
1296                expression.method,
1297                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1298                expression.side,
1299                expression.kind,
1300                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1301            )
1302            if op
1303        )
1304        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1305        using = expression.args.get("using")
1306
1307        if not on_sql and using:
1308            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1309
1310        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311
1312        if on_sql:
1313            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1314            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1315            if using:
1316                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1317            else:
1318                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1319        elif not op_sql:
1320            return f", {this_sql}"
1321
1322        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1323        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1324
1325    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1326        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1327        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1328        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1329
1330    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332
1333        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1334            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1335
1336        if expression.args.get("view"):
1337            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1338            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1339            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1340            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1341            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1342            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1343
1344        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1345        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1346        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1347
1348    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1350        args = ", ".join(
1351            sql
1352            for sql in (
1353                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1354                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1355            )
1356            if sql
1357        )
1358        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1359
1360    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1362        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1363
1364    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1366        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1368        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1369        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1370        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1371        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1372        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1373
1374    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1375        expressions = (
1376            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1377        )
1378        return f"SET{expressions}"
1379
1380    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1381        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1382
1383    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1384        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1385            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1386            return ""
1387
1388        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1389        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1390        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1391        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1392
1393        if wait is not None:
1394            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1395                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1396            else:
1397                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1398
1399        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1400
1401    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1402        text = expression.this or ""
1403        if expression.is_string:
1404            text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1405            if self.pretty:
1406                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1407            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{text}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1408        return text
1409
1410    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1411        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1412        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1413        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1414        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1415        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1416        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1417        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1418        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1419        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1420        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1421        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1422
1423    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1424        return "NULL"
1425
1426    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1427        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1428
1429    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1431        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1432        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1433
1434    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1435        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1436
1437    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1438        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1439
1440    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1441        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1442
1443    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1444        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1445        asc = not desc
1446
1447        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1448        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1449        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1450        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1451        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1452
1453        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1454        nulls_sort_change = ""
1455        if nulls_first and (
1456            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1457        ):
1458            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1459        elif (
1460            nulls_last
1461            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1462            and not nulls_are_last
1463        ):
1464            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1465
1466        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1467            self.unsupported(
1468                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1469            )
1470            nulls_sort_change = ""
1471
1472        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1473
1474    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1475        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1476        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1477        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1478        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1479        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1480        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1481        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1482        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1483        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1484        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1485        definition_sqls = [
1486            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1487            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1488        ]
1489        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1490        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1491        body = "".join(
1492            (
1493                partition,
1494                order,
1495                measures,
1496                rows,
1497                after,
1498                pattern,
1499                define,
1500            )
1501        )
1502        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1503        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1504        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1505
1506    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1507        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1508
1509        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1510            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1511        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1512            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1513
1514        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1515
1516        return csv(
1517            *sqls,
1518            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1519            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1520            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1521            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1522            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1524            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1525            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1526            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1527            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1528            sep="",
1529        )
1530
1531    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1532        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1533    ) -> t.List[str]:
1534        return [
1535            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1536            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1537        ]
1538
1539    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1540        return [
1541            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1542            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1543            if expression.args.get("windows")
1544            else "",
1545        ]
1546
1547    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1548        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1549        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1550        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1551
1552    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1553        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1554        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1555        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1556        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1557        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1558        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1559        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1560        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1561            expression,
1562            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1563            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1564            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1565        )
1566        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1567
1568    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1571        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1572        return f"{this}{sql}"
1573
1574    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1575        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1576
1577    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1578        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1579        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1580        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1581        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1582        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1583
1584    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1586        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1587        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1588
1589    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1591        kind = expression.text("kind")
1592        if kind:
1593            kind = f"{kind}."
1594        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1595
1596    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1597        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1598
1599    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1600        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1601        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1602
1603        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1604        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1605
1606        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1607        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1608
1609    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1610        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1611        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1612
1613    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1614        return self.prepend_ctes(
1615            expression,
1616            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1617        )
1618
1619    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1620        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1621        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1622        return f"UNION{kind}"
1623
1624    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1625        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1626        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1627        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1628            columns = alias.columns
1629            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1630        else:
1631            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1632        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1633        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1634        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1635        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1636        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1637
1638    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1639        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1640        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1641
1642    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1645        order = expression.args.get("order")
1646        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1647        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1648        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1649        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1650
1651        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1652
1653        first = expression.args.get("first")
1654        if first is None:
1655            first = ""
1656        else:
1657            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1658
1659        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1660            return f"{this} {alias}"
1661
1662        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1663        return f"{this} ({args})"
1664
1665    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1666        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1667        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1668
1669    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1670        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1671        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1672        end = (
1673            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1674            or "CURRENT ROW"
1675        )
1676        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1677
1678    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1681        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1682
1683    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1686        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1687        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1688
1689    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1690        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1691        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1692
1693        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1694
1695    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1696        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1697
1698    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1701            this = self.wrap(this)
1702        return f"ANY {this}"
1703
1704    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1705        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1706
1707    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1710
1711        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1712            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1713            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1714
1715        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1716
1717        if default:
1718            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1719
1720        statements.append("END")
1721
1722        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1723            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1724
1725        return " ".join(statements)
1726
1727    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1730        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1731
1732    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1733        order = expression.args.get("order")
1734        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1735        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1736
1737    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1740        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1741
1742    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1743        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1744
1745        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1746            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1747        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1748            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1749        else:
1750            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1751
1752    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1753        expressions = expression.expressions
1754        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1755            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1756        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1757
1758    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1759        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1760        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1761
1762    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1763        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1764        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1765        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1766        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1767        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1768        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1769        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1770        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1771
1772    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1774        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1775        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1776        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1777
1778    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1779        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1780
1781    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1782        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1783        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1784        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1785
1786    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1788
1789    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1790        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1791        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1792        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1793        if unique_keys is not None:
1794            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1795        else:
1796            unique_keys = ""
1797        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1798        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1799        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1800        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1801        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1802        return self.func(
1803            "JSON_OBJECT",
1804            *expression.expressions,
1805            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1806        )
1807
1808    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1811        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1812        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1813        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1814        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1815
1816    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1819        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1820        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1821        with_ = (
1822            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1823            if expressions
1824            else ""
1825        )
1826        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1827
1828    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1829        query = expression.args.get("query")
1830        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1831        field = expression.args.get("field")
1832        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1833
1834        if query:
1835            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1836        elif unnest:
1837            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1838        elif field:
1839            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1840        else:
1841            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1842
1843        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1844
1845    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1846        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1847
1848    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1849        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1850        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1851            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1852        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1853
1854        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1855            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1856            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1857
1858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1859        if this:
1860            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1861            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1862
1863        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1864
1865    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1866        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1867
1868    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1871        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1872        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1873        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1874        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1875
1876    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1877        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1878
1879    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1880        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1881            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1882        else:
1883            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1884            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1885
1886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1887
1888    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1889        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1890        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1891        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1892        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1893
1894    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1895        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1896
1897    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1898        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1899        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1900        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1901
1902    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1904
1905    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1907        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1908        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1909
1910    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1911        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1912
1913    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1914        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1915
1916    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1917        if not self.pretty:
1918            return self.binary(expression, op)
1919
1920        sqls = tuple(
1921            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1922            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1923        )
1924
1925        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1926        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1927
1928    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1929        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1930
1931    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1932        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1933
1934    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1935        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1936
1937    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1939
1940    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1941        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1942
1943    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1944        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1945
1946    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1947        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1948
1949    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1950        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1952
1953    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1954        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1955
1956    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1957        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1958
1959    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1961        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1962        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1963        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1964        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1965
1966    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1969        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1970        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1971        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1972        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1973        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1974        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1975        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1976
1977    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1978        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1979        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1980        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1981        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1982
1983        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1984            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1985
1986        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1987
1988    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1989        return "BEGIN"
1990
1991    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1992        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1993        if chain is not None:
1994            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1995
1996        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1997
1998    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1999        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2000        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2001        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2002
2003    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2005
2006        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2007        if dtype:
2008            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2009            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2010            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2011            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2012            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2013
2014        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2015        if default:
2016            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2017
2018        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2019            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2020
2021        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2022
2023    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2024        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2025            # Remove db from tables
2026            expression = expression.transform(
2027                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2028            )
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2031
2032    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2033        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2034
2035        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2036            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2037        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2038            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2039        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2040            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2041        else:
2042            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2043
2044        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2045        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2046
2047    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2048        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2049        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2050        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2051
2052    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2054        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2055        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2056
2057        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2058        if enforced is not None:
2059            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2060
2061        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2062
2063    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2064        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2065        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2066
2067        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2068        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2069        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2070
2071    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2072        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2073
2074    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2075        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2076
2077    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2078        return self.sql(
2079            exp.Cast(
2080                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2081                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2082            )
2083        )
2084
2085    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2086        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2087
2088    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2089        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2090            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2091        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2092
2093    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2095
2096    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2097        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2098
2099    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2101
2102    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2103        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2104
2105    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2107
2108    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2110
2111    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2113
2114    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2116
2117    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2119
2120    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2122
2123    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2125
2126    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2127        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2128            return self.sql(
2129                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2130            )
2131        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2132
2133    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2135
2136    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2138
2139    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2141
2142    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2144
2145    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2147
2148    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2150
2151    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2153
2154    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2156
2157    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2159
2160    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2162
2163    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2164        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2165
2166    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2168
2169    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2171
2172    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2173        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2174
2175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2181
2182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2185
2186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2187        args = []
2188        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2189            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2190                for value in arg_value:
2191                    args.append(value)
2192            else:
2193                args.append(arg_value)
2194
2195        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2196
2197    def func(
2198        self,
2199        name: str,
2200        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2201        prefix: str = "(",
2202        suffix: str = ")",
2203    ) -> str:
2204        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2205
2206    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2207        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2208        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2209            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2210        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2211
2212    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2213        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2214
2215    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2216        return format_time(
2217            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2218        )
2219
2220    def expressions(
2221        self,
2222        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2223        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2224        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2225        flat: bool = False,
2226        indent: bool = True,
2227        sep: str = ", ",
2228        prefix: str = "",
2229    ) -> str:
2230        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2231
2232        if not expressions:
2233            return ""
2234
2235        if flat:
2236            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2237
2238        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2239
2240        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2241        pad = " " * self.pad
2242        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2243
2244        result_sqls = []
2245        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2246            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2247            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2248
2249            if self.pretty:
2250                if self.leading_comma:
2251                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2252                else:
2253                    result_sqls.append(
2254                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2255                    )
2256            else:
2257                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2258
2259        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2260        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2261
2262    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2263        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2264        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2265        if flat:
2266            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2267        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2268
2269    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2270        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2271        if not property_name:
2272            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2273        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2274
2275    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        op = self.seg(op)
2278        return self.query_modifiers(
2279            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2280        )
2281
2282    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2283        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2284
2285    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2286        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2287
2288    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2291        expressions = (
2292            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2293        )
2294        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2295
2296    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2299        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2300
2301    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2302        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2303
2304    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2305        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2306        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2307        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2308        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2309
2310        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2311        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2312            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2313            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2314                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2315        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2316            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2317                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2318            else:
2319                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2320        else:
2321            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2322        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2323
2324    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2327        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2328        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2329
2330    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2331        if expression.args.get("format"):
2332            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2333
2334        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2335
2336    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2338        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2339        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2340        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2341        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2342
2343    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2345        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2346        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2347        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2348
2349    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2350        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2351
2352    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2353        return ""
2354
2355
2356def cached_generator(
2357    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2358) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2359    """Returns a cached generator."""
2360    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2361    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2362    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  63        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  64        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  65        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  66        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  67        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  68        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  69        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  70        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  72        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  73        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  74        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  75        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  76        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  77        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  78        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  79        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  85        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 147        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 154    }
 155
 156    STAR_MAPPING = {
 157        "except": "EXCEPT",
 158        "replace": "REPLACE",
 159    }
 160
 161    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 162        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 163        "seconds": "second",
 164        "minutes": "minute",
 165        "hours": "hour",
 166        "days": "day",
 167        "weeks": "week",
 168        "months": "month",
 169        "quarters": "quarter",
 170        "years": "year",
 171    }
 172
 173    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 174
 175    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 176
 177    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 178
 179    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 180        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 181        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 182        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 183        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 184        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 185        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 189        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 196        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 197        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 198        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 199        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 205        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 208        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 209        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 210        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 212        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 214        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 223        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 232        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233    }
 234
 235    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 236    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 237
 238    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 239
 240    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 241
 242    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 243
 244    # Autofilled
 245    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 246    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 247    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 248    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 249    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 250    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 251    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 252    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 253    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 254
 255    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 256    QUOTE_START = "'"
 257    QUOTE_END = "'"
 258    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 259    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 260    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 261    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 262
 263    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 264    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 265    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 266    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 267    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 268    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 269    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 270    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 271    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 272
 273    __slots__ = (
 274        "pretty",
 275        "identify",
 276        "normalize",
 277        "pad",
 278        "_indent",
 279        "normalize_functions",
 280        "unsupported_level",
 281        "max_unsupported",
 282        "leading_comma",
 283        "max_text_width",
 284        "comments",
 285        "unsupported_messages",
 286        "_escaped_quote_end",
 287        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 288        "_cache",
 289    )
 290
 291    def __init__(
 292        self,
 293        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 294        identify: str | bool = False,
 295        normalize: bool = False,
 296        pad: int = 2,
 297        indent: int = 2,
 298        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 299        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 300        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 301        leading_comma: bool = False,
 302        max_text_width: int = 80,
 303        comments: bool = True,
 304    ):
 305        import sqlglot
 306
 307        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 308        self.identify = identify
 309        self.normalize = normalize
 310        self.pad = pad
 311        self._indent = indent
 312        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 313        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 314        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 315        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 316        self.comments = comments
 317
 318        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 319        self.normalize_functions = (
 320            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 321        )
 322
 323        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 324        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 325        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 326        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 327
 328    def generate(
 329        self,
 330        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 331        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 332    ) -> str:
 333        """
 334        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 335
 336        Args:
 337            expression: The syntax tree.
 338            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 339                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 340
 341        Returns:
 342            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 343        """
 344        if cache is not None:
 345            self._cache = cache
 346
 347        self.unsupported_messages = []
 348        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 349        self._cache = None
 350
 351        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 352            return sql
 353
 354        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 355            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 356                logger.warning(msg)
 357        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 358            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 359
 360        if self.pretty:
 361            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 362        return sql
 363
 364    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 365        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 366            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 367        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 368
 369    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 370        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 371
 372    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 373        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 374
 375    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 376        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 377        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 378        return comment
 379
 380    def maybe_comment(
 381        self,
 382        sql: str,
 383        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 384        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 385    ) -> str:
 386        comments = (
 387            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 388            if self.comments
 389            else None
 390        )
 391
 392        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 393            return sql
 394
 395        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 396        comments_sql = sep.join(
 397            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 398        )
 399
 400        if not comments_sql:
 401            return sql
 402
 403        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 404            return (
 405                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 406                if sql[0].isspace()
 407                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 408            )
 409
 410        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 411
 412    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 413        this_sql = self.indent(
 414            self.sql(expression)
 415            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 416            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 417            level=1,
 418            pad=0,
 419        )
 420        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 421
 422    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 423        original = self.identify
 424        self.identify = False
 425        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 426        self.identify = original
 427        return result
 428
 429    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 430        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 431            return name.upper()
 432        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 433            return name.lower()
 434        return name
 435
 436    def indent(
 437        self,
 438        sql: str,
 439        level: int = 0,
 440        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 441        skip_first: bool = False,
 442        skip_last: bool = False,
 443    ) -> str:
 444        if not self.pretty:
 445            return sql
 446
 447        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 448        lines = sql.split("\n")
 449
 450        return "\n".join(
 451            line
 452            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 453            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 454            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 455        )
 456
 457    def sql(
 458        self,
 459        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 460        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 461        comment: bool = True,
 462    ) -> str:
 463        if not expression:
 464            return ""
 465
 466        if isinstance(expression, str):
 467            return expression
 468
 469        if key:
 470            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 471
 472        if self._cache is not None:
 473            expression_id = hash(expression)
 474
 475            if expression_id in self._cache:
 476                return self._cache[expression_id]
 477
 478        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 479
 480        if callable(transform):
 481            sql = transform(self, expression)
 482        elif transform:
 483            sql = transform
 484        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 485            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 486
 487            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 488                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 489            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 490                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 491            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 492                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 493            else:
 494                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 495        else:
 496            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 497
 498        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 499
 500        if self._cache is not None:
 501            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 502        return sql
 503
 504    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 505        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 506        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 507        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 508
 509    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 510        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 511        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 512        options = expression.args.get("options")
 513        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 514        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 515        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 516        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 517        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 518
 519    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 520        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 521            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 522        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 523        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 524
 525    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 526        return ".".join(
 527            self.sql(part)
 528            for part in (
 529                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 530                expression.args.get("db"),
 531                expression.args.get("table"),
 532                expression.args.get("this"),
 533            )
 534            if part
 535        )
 536
 537    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 540        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 541        return f"{position}{this}"
 542
 543    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 544        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 545        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 546        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 547        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 548        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 549        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 550        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 551        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 552
 553        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 554
 555    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 558        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 559
 560    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 561        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 562
 563    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 564        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 565            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 566        else:
 567            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 568
 569        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 570
 571    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 572        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 573    ) -> str:
 574        this = ""
 575        if expression.this is not None:
 576            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 577            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 578
 579        start = expression.args.get("start")
 580        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 581        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 582        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 583        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 584        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 585        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 586        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 587        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 588        cycle_sql = ""
 589
 590        if cycle is not None:
 591            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 592            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 593
 594        sequence_opts = ""
 595        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 596            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 597            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 598
 599        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 600        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 601
 602        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 603
 604    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 605        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 606
 607    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 608        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 609        if desc is not None:
 610            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 611        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 612
 613    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 615        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 616        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 617
 618    def createable_sql(
 619        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 620    ) -> str:
 621        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 622
 623    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 625        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 626        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 627
 628        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 629
 630        properties_sql = ""
 631        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 632            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 633        ):
 634            properties_sql = self.sql(
 635                exp.Properties(
 636                    expressions=[
 637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 638                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 639                    ]
 640                )
 641            )
 642
 643        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 644        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 645        if expression_sql:
 646            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 647
 648            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 649                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 650                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 651                        exp.Properties(
 652                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 653                        ),
 654                        wrapped=False,
 655                    )
 656                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 657                else:
 658                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 659
 660        postindex_props_sql = ""
 661        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 662            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 663                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 664                wrapped=False,
 665                prefix=" ",
 666            )
 667
 668        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 669        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 670        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 671
 672        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 673        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 674
 675        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 676        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 677            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 678                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 679                sep=" ",
 680                prefix=" ",
 681                wrapped=False,
 682            )
 683
 684        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 685
 686        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 687        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 688            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 689                exp.Properties(
 690                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 691                ),
 692                sep=" ",
 693                prefix=" ",
 694                wrapped=False,
 695            )
 696
 697        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 698        no_schema_binding = (
 699            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 700        )
 701
 702        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 703        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 704
 705        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 706        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 707
 708    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 710        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 711
 712        if when:
 713            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 714            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 715            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 716
 717        return f"CLONE {this}"
 718
 719    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 720        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 721
 722    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 723        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 724        if with_:
 725            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 726        return sql
 727
 728    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 729        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 730        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 731
 732        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 733
 734    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 735        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 736        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 737
 738    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 739        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 740        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 741        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 742        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 743
 744    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 746        if self.BIT_START:
 747            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 748        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 749
 750    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 752        if self.HEX_START:
 753            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 754        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 755
 756    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        if self.BYTE_START:
 759            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 760        return this
 761
 762    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 763        if self.RAW_START:
 764            return f"{self.RAW_START}{expression.name}{self.RAW_END}"
 765        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 766
 767    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 769        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 770        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 771        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 772
 773    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 774        type_value = expression.this
 775        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 776        nested = ""
 777        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 778        values = ""
 779        if interior:
 780            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 781                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 782                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 783                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 784                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 785                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 786            else:
 787                nested = f"({interior})"
 788
 789        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 790
 791    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 792        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 793        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 794        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 795        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 796
 797    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 800        using_sql = (
 801            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 802            if expression.args.get("using")
 803            else ""
 804        )
 805        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 806        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 807        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 809
 810    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 812        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 813        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 814        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 815        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 816        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 817        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 818        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 819        return (
 820            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 821        )
 822
 823    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 824        return self.prepend_ctes(
 825            expression,
 826            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 827        )
 828
 829    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 830        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 831
 832    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 833        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 834        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 835        count = expression.args.get("count")
 836        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 837        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 838            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 839        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 840        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 841
 842    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 845        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 846
 847    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 848        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 849            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 850        return ""
 851
 852    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 853        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 854        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 855        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 856        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 857        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 858        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 859        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 860        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 861        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 862        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 863        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 864        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 865        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 866        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 867
 868    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 869        text = expression.name
 870        lower = text.lower()
 871        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 872        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 873        if (
 874            expression.quoted
 875            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 876            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 877            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 878        ):
 879            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 880        return text
 881
 882    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 883        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 884        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 885        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 886        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 887        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 888
 889    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 890        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 891        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 892
 893    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 894        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 895
 896    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 897        root_properties = []
 898        with_properties = []
 899
 900        for p in expression.expressions:
 901            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 902            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 903                with_properties.append(p)
 904            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 905                root_properties.append(p)
 906
 907        return self.root_properties(
 908            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 909        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 910
 911    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 912        if properties.expressions:
 913            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 914        return ""
 915
 916    def properties(
 917        self,
 918        properties: exp.Properties,
 919        prefix: str = "",
 920        sep: str = ", ",
 921        suffix: str = "",
 922        wrapped: bool = True,
 923    ) -> str:
 924        if properties.expressions:
 925            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 926            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 927            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 928        return ""
 929
 930    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 931        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 932
 933    def locate_properties(
 934        self, properties: exp.Properties
 935    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 936        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 937            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 938        }
 939
 940        for p in properties.expressions:
 941            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 942            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 943                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 944            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 945                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 946            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 947                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 948            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 949                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 950            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 951                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 952            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 953                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 954            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 955                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 956            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 957                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 958
 959        return properties_locs
 960
 961    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 962        property_cls = expression.__class__
 963        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 964            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 965
 966        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 967        if not property_name:
 968            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 969
 970        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 971
 972    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 973        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 974        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 975        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 976
 977    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 978        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 979        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 980        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 981
 982    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
 983        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 984        local = expression.args.get("local")
 985        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
 986        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
 987        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
 988        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
 989        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
 990
 991    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
 992        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
 993        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
 994        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
 995
 996    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
 997        if expression.args.get("default"):
 998            property = "DEFAULT"
 999        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1000            property = "ON"
1001        else:
1002            property = "OFF"
1003        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1004
1005    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1006        if expression.args.get("no"):
1007            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1008        if expression.args.get("default"):
1009            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1010
1011        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1012        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1013
1014    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1015        default = expression.args.get("default")
1016        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1017        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1018        if default or minimum or maximum:
1019            if default:
1020                prop = "DEFAULT"
1021            elif minimum:
1022                prop = "MINIMUM"
1023            else:
1024                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1025            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1026        units = expression.args.get("units")
1027        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1028        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1029
1030    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1031        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1032        always = expression.args.get("always")
1033        default = expression.args.get("default")
1034        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1035        never = expression.args.get("never")
1036
1037        if autotemp is not None:
1038            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1039        elif always:
1040            prop = "ALWAYS"
1041        elif default:
1042            prop = "DEFAULT"
1043        elif manual:
1044            prop = "MANUAL"
1045        elif never:
1046            prop = "NEVER"
1047        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1048
1049    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1050        no = expression.args.get("no")
1051        no = " NO" if no else ""
1052        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1053        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1054
1055        for_ = ""
1056        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1057            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1058        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1059            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1060        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1061            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1062        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1063
1064    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1065        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1066        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1067        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1068        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1069        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1070        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1071
1072    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1073        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1074        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1075        statistics_sql = ""
1076        if statistics is not None:
1077            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1078        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1079
1080    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1081        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1082
1083        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1084            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1085        else:
1086            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1087
1088        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1089        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1090        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1091
1092        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1093        partition_sql = (
1094            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1095        )
1096        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1097        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1098        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1099        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1100        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1101        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1102
1103    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1104        return self.prepend_ctes(
1105            expression,
1106            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1107        )
1108
1109    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1110        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1111
1112    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1113        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1114
1115    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1116        return expression.name.upper()
1117
1118    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1119        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1120        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1121        if constraint:
1122            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1123        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1124        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1125        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1127        if expressions:
1128            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1129        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1130
1131    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1132        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1133
1134    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1135        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1136        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1137        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1138        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1139        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1140        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1141        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1142        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1143        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1144        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1145        null = expression.args.get("null")
1146        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1147        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1148
1149    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1150        table = ".".join(
1151            part
1152            for part in [
1153                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1154                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1155                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1156            ]
1157            if part
1158        )
1159
1160        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1161        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1162        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1163        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1164        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1165        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1166        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1167        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1168        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1169        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1170
1171        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1172
1173    def tablesample_sql(
1174        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1175    ) -> str:
1176        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1177            table = expression.this.copy()
1178            table.set("alias", None)
1179            this = self.sql(table)
1180            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1181        else:
1182            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183            alias = ""
1184        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1185        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1186        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1187        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1188        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1189        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1190        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1191        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1192        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1193        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1194        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1195        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1196        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1197            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1198        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1199        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1200        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1201        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1202
1203    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1205
1206        if expression.this:
1207            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1209            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1210            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1211            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1212            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1213
1214        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1215        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1216        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1217        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1218        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1219        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1220
1221    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1222        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1223
1224    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1228        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1229        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1230        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1231        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1232
1233    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1234        args = self.expressions(expression)
1235        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1236        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1237        values = (
1238            f"({values})"
1239            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1240            else values
1241        )
1242        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1243
1244    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1245        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1246
1247    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1248        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1249        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1250        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1251
1252    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1253        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1254
1255    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1256        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1257        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1258        grouping_sets = (
1259            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1260        )
1261
1262        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1263        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1264            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1265        else:
1266            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1267            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1268
1269        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1270        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1271            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1272        else:
1273            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1274            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1275
1276        groupings = csv(
1277            grouping_sets,
1278            cube_sql,
1279            rollup_sql,
1280            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1281            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1282        )
1283
1284        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1285            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1286
1287        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1288
1289    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1290        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1291        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1292
1293    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1294        op_sql = " ".join(
1295            op
1296            for op in (
1297                expression.method,
1298                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1299                expression.side,
1300                expression.kind,
1301                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1302            )
1303            if op
1304        )
1305        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1306        using = expression.args.get("using")
1307
1308        if not on_sql and using:
1309            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1310
1311        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312
1313        if on_sql:
1314            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1315            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1316            if using:
1317                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1318            else:
1319                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1320        elif not op_sql:
1321            return f", {this_sql}"
1322
1323        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1324        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1325
1326    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1327        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1328        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1329        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1330
1331    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333
1334        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1335            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1336
1337        if expression.args.get("view"):
1338            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1339            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1340            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1341            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1342            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1343            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1344
1345        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1346        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1347        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1348
1349    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1351        args = ", ".join(
1352            sql
1353            for sql in (
1354                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1355                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1356            )
1357            if sql
1358        )
1359        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1360
1361    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1364
1365    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1366        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1367        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1370        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1371        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1372        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1373        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1374
1375    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1376        expressions = (
1377            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1378        )
1379        return f"SET{expressions}"
1380
1381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1385        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1386            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1387            return ""
1388
1389        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1391        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1392        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1393
1394        if wait is not None:
1395            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1396                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1397            else:
1398                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1399
1400        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1401
1402    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1403        text = expression.this or ""
1404        if expression.is_string:
1405            text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1406            if self.pretty:
1407                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1408            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{text}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1409        return text
1410
1411    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1412        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1413        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1414        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1415        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1416        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1417        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1418        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1419        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1420        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1421        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1422        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1423
1424    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1425        return "NULL"
1426
1427    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1428        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1429
1430    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1433        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1434
1435    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1436        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1437
1438    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1439        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1440
1441    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1442        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1443
1444    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1445        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1446        asc = not desc
1447
1448        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1449        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1450        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1451        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1452        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1453
1454        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1455        nulls_sort_change = ""
1456        if nulls_first and (
1457            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1458        ):
1459            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1460        elif (
1461            nulls_last
1462            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1463            and not nulls_are_last
1464        ):
1465            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1466
1467        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1468            self.unsupported(
1469                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1470            )
1471            nulls_sort_change = ""
1472
1473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1474
1475    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1476        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1477        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1478        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1479        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1480        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1481        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1482        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1483        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1484        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1485        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1486        definition_sqls = [
1487            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1488            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1489        ]
1490        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1491        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1492        body = "".join(
1493            (
1494                partition,
1495                order,
1496                measures,
1497                rows,
1498                after,
1499                pattern,
1500                define,
1501            )
1502        )
1503        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1504        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1505        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1506
1507    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1508        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1509
1510        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1511            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1512        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1513            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1514
1515        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1516
1517        return csv(
1518            *sqls,
1519            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1520            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1521            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1522            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1524            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1525            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1526            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1527            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1528            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1529            sep="",
1530        )
1531
1532    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1533        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1534    ) -> t.List[str]:
1535        return [
1536            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1537            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1538        ]
1539
1540    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1541        return [
1542            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1543            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1544            if expression.args.get("windows")
1545            else "",
1546        ]
1547
1548    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1549        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1550        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1551        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1552
1553    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1554        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1555        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1556        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1557        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1558        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1560        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1561        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1562            expression,
1563            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1564            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1565            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1566        )
1567        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1568
1569    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1571        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1572        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1573        return f"{this}{sql}"
1574
1575    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1576        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1577
1578    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1579        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1580        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1581        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1582        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1583        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1584
1585    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1587        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1588        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1589
1590    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1592        kind = expression.text("kind")
1593        if kind:
1594            kind = f"{kind}."
1595        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1596
1597    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1598        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1599
1600    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1601        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1602        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1603
1604        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1605        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1606
1607        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1608        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1609
1610    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1611        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1612        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1613
1614    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1615        return self.prepend_ctes(
1616            expression,
1617            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1618        )
1619
1620    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1621        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1622        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1623        return f"UNION{kind}"
1624
1625    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1626        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1627        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1628        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1629            columns = alias.columns
1630            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1631        else:
1632            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1633        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1634        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1635        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1636        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1637        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1638
1639    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1640        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1641        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1642
1643    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1646        order = expression.args.get("order")
1647        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1648        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1649        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1650        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1651
1652        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1653
1654        first = expression.args.get("first")
1655        if first is None:
1656            first = ""
1657        else:
1658            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1659
1660        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1661            return f"{this} {alias}"
1662
1663        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1664        return f"{this} ({args})"
1665
1666    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1667        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1668        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1669
1670    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1672        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1673        end = (
1674            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1675            or "CURRENT ROW"
1676        )
1677        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1678
1679    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1682        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1683
1684    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1687        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1688        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1689
1690    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1691        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1692        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1693
1694        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1695
1696    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1697        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1698
1699    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1702            this = self.wrap(this)
1703        return f"ANY {this}"
1704
1705    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1706        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1707
1708    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1711
1712        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1713            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1714            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1715
1716        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1717
1718        if default:
1719            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1720
1721        statements.append("END")
1722
1723        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1724            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1725
1726        return " ".join(statements)
1727
1728    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1730        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1731        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1732
1733    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1734        order = expression.args.get("order")
1735        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1736        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1737
1738    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1741        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1742
1743    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1744        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1745
1746        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1747            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1748        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1749            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1750        else:
1751            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1752
1753    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1754        expressions = expression.expressions
1755        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1756            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1757        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1758
1759    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1760        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1761        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1762
1763    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1764        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1765        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1766        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1767        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1768        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1769        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1770        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1771        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1772
1773    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1775        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1776        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1777        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1778
1779    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1780        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1781
1782    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1783        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1784        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1785        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1786
1787    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1789
1790    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1791        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1792        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1793        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1794        if unique_keys is not None:
1795            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1796        else:
1797            unique_keys = ""
1798        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1799        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1800        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1801        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1802        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1803        return self.func(
1804            "JSON_OBJECT",
1805            *expression.expressions,
1806            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1807        )
1808
1809    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1813        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1814        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1815        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1816
1817    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1820        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1821        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1822        with_ = (
1823            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1824            if expressions
1825            else ""
1826        )
1827        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1828
1829    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1830        query = expression.args.get("query")
1831        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1832        field = expression.args.get("field")
1833        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1834
1835        if query:
1836            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1837        elif unnest:
1838            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1839        elif field:
1840            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1841        else:
1842            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1843
1844        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1845
1846    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1847        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1848
1849    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1850        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1851        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1852            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1853        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1854
1855        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1856            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1857            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1858
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        if this:
1861            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1862            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1863
1864        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1865
1866    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1867        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1868
1869    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1872        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1873        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1874        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1875        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1876
1877    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1878        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1879
1880    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1881        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1882            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1883        else:
1884            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1885            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1886
1887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1888
1889    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1890        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1891        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1892        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1893        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1894
1895    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1896        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1897
1898    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1899        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1901        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1902
1903    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1904        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1905
1906    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1908        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1909        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1910
1911    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1912        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1913
1914    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1915        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1916
1917    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1918        if not self.pretty:
1919            return self.binary(expression, op)
1920
1921        sqls = tuple(
1922            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1923            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1924        )
1925
1926        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1927        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1928
1929    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1930        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1931
1932    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1933        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1934
1935    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1936        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1937
1938    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1939        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1940
1941    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1942        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1943
1944    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1946
1947    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1948        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1949
1950    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1951        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1953
1954    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1955        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1956
1957    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1958        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1959
1960    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1963        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1964        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1965        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1966
1967    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1970        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1971        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1972        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1973        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1974        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1975        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1976        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1977
1978    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1979        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1980        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1981        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1982        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1983
1984        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1985            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1986
1987        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1988
1989    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1990        return "BEGIN"
1991
1992    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1993        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1994        if chain is not None:
1995            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1996
1997        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1998
1999    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2000        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2001        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2002        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2003
2004    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006
2007        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2008        if dtype:
2009            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2010            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2011            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2012            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2013            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2014
2015        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2016        if default:
2017            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2018
2019        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2020            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2021
2022        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2023
2024    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2025        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2026            # Remove db from tables
2027            expression = expression.transform(
2028                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2029            )
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2032
2033    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2034        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2035
2036        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2037            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2038        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2039            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2042        else:
2043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2044
2045        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2046        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2047
2048    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2049        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2050        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2051        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2052
2053    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2055        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2056        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2057
2058        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2059        if enforced is not None:
2060            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2061
2062        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2063
2064    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2065        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2066        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2067
2068        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2069        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2070        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2071
2072    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2074
2075    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2077
2078    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2079        return self.sql(
2080            exp.Cast(
2081                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2082                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2083            )
2084        )
2085
2086    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2087        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2088
2089    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2090        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2091            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2092        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2093
2094    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2096
2097    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2099
2100    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2102
2103    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2105
2106    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2108
2109    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2111
2112    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2114
2115    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2117
2118    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2120
2121    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2123
2124    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2126
2127    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2128        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2129            return self.sql(
2130                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2131            )
2132        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2133
2134    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2136
2137    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2139
2140    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2142
2143    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2145
2146    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2148
2149    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2151
2152    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2154
2155    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2157
2158    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2160
2161    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2163
2164    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2165        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2166
2167    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2169
2170    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2172
2173    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2174        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2175
2176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2182
2183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2186
2187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2188        args = []
2189        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2190            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2191                for value in arg_value:
2192                    args.append(value)
2193            else:
2194                args.append(arg_value)
2195
2196        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2197
2198    def func(
2199        self,
2200        name: str,
2201        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2202        prefix: str = "(",
2203        suffix: str = ")",
2204    ) -> str:
2205        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2206
2207    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2208        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2209        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2210            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2211        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2212
2213    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2214        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2215
2216    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2217        return format_time(
2218            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2219        )
2220
2221    def expressions(
2222        self,
2223        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2224        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2225        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2226        flat: bool = False,
2227        indent: bool = True,
2228        sep: str = ", ",
2229        prefix: str = "",
2230    ) -> str:
2231        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2232
2233        if not expressions:
2234            return ""
2235
2236        if flat:
2237            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2238
2239        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2240
2241        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2242        pad = " " * self.pad
2243        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2244
2245        result_sqls = []
2246        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2247            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2248            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2249
2250            if self.pretty:
2251                if self.leading_comma:
2252                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2253                else:
2254                    result_sqls.append(
2255                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2256                    )
2257            else:
2258                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2259
2260        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2261        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2262
2263    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2264        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2265        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2266        if flat:
2267            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2268        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2269
2270    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2271        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2272        if not property_name:
2273            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2274        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2275
2276    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        op = self.seg(op)
2279        return self.query_modifiers(
2280            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2281        )
2282
2283    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2284        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2285
2286    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2287        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2288
2289    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2292        expressions = (
2293            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2294        )
2295        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2296
2297    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2300        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2301
2302    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2304
2305    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2306        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2307        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2308        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2309        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2310
2311        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2312        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2313            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2314            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2315                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2316        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2317            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2318                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2319            else:
2320                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2321        else:
2322            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2323        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2324
2325    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2328        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2329        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2330
2331    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2332        if expression.args.get("format"):
2333            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2334
2335        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2336
2337    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2340        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2341        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2342        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2343
2344    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2346        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2347        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2348        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2349
2350    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2352
2353    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2354        return ""

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
291    def __init__(
292        self,
293        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
294        identify: str | bool = False,
295        normalize: bool = False,
296        pad: int = 2,
297        indent: int = 2,
298        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
299        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
300        max_unsupported: int = 3,
301        leading_comma: bool = False,
302        max_text_width: int = 80,
303        comments: bool = True,
304    ):
305        import sqlglot
306
307        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
308        self.identify = identify
309        self.normalize = normalize
310        self.pad = pad
311        self._indent = indent
312        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
313        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
314        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
315        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
316        self.comments = comments
317
318        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
319        self.normalize_functions = (
320            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
321        )
322
323        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
324        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
325        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
326        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
328    def generate(
329        self,
330        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
331        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
332    ) -> str:
333        """
334        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
335
336        Args:
337            expression: The syntax tree.
338            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
339                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
340
341        Returns:
342            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
343        """
344        if cache is not None:
345            self._cache = cache
346
347        self.unsupported_messages = []
348        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
349        self._cache = None
350
351        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
352            return sql
353
354        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
355            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
356                logger.warning(msg)
357        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
358            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
359
360        if self.pretty:
361            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
362        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
364    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
365        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
366            raise UnsupportedError(message)
367        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
369    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
370        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
372    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
373        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
375    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
376        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
377        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
378        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
380    def maybe_comment(
381        self,
382        sql: str,
383        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
384        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
385    ) -> str:
386        comments = (
387            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
388            if self.comments
389            else None
390        )
391
392        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
393            return sql
394
395        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
396        comments_sql = sep.join(
397            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
398        )
399
400        if not comments_sql:
401            return sql
402
403        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
404            return (
405                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
406                if sql[0].isspace()
407                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
408            )
409
410        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
412    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
413        this_sql = self.indent(
414            self.sql(expression)
415            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
416            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
417            level=1,
418            pad=0,
419        )
420        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
422    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
423        original = self.identify
424        self.identify = False
425        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
426        self.identify = original
427        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
429    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
430        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
431            return name.upper()
432        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
433            return name.lower()
434        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
436    def indent(
437        self,
438        sql: str,
439        level: int = 0,
440        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
441        skip_first: bool = False,
442        skip_last: bool = False,
443    ) -> str:
444        if not self.pretty:
445            return sql
446
447        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
448        lines = sql.split("\n")
449
450        return "\n".join(
451            line
452            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
453            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
454            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
455        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
457    def sql(
458        self,
459        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
460        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
461        comment: bool = True,
462    ) -> str:
463        if not expression:
464            return ""
465
466        if isinstance(expression, str):
467            return expression
468
469        if key:
470            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
471
472        if self._cache is not None:
473            expression_id = hash(expression)
474
475            if expression_id in self._cache:
476                return self._cache[expression_id]
477
478        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
479
480        if callable(transform):
481            sql = transform(self, expression)
482        elif transform:
483            sql = transform
484        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
485            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
486
487            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
488                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
489            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
490                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
491            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
492                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
493            else:
494                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
495        else:
496            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
497
498        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
499
500        if self._cache is not None:
501            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
502        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
504    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
505        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
506        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
507        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
509    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
510        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
511        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
512        options = expression.args.get("options")
513        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
514        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
515        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
516        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
517        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
519    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
520        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
521            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
522        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
523        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
525    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
526        return ".".join(
527            self.sql(part)
528            for part in (
529                expression.args.get("catalog"),
530                expression.args.get("db"),
531                expression.args.get("table"),
532                expression.args.get("this"),
533            )
534            if part
535        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
537    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
539        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
540        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
541        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
543    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
544        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
545        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
546        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
547        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
548        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
549        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
550        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
551        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
552
553        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
555    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
557        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
558        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
560    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
561        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
563    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
564        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
565            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
566        else:
567            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
568
569        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
571    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
572        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
573    ) -> str:
574        this = ""
575        if expression.this is not None:
576            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
577            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
578
579        start = expression.args.get("start")
580        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
581        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
582        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
583        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
584        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
585        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
586        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
587        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
588        cycle_sql = ""
589
590        if cycle is not None:
591            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
592            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
593
594        sequence_opts = ""
595        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
596            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
597            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
598
599        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
600        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
601
602        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
604    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
605        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
607    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
608        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
609        if desc is not None:
610            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
611        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
613    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
615        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
616        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
618    def createable_sql(
619        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
620    ) -> str:
621        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
623    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
625        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
626        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
627
628        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
629
630        properties_sql = ""
631        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
632            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
633        ):
634            properties_sql = self.sql(
635                exp.Properties(
636                    expressions=[
637                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
638                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
639                    ]
640                )
641            )
642
643        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
644        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
645        if expression_sql:
646            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
647
648            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
649                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
650                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
651                        exp.Properties(
652                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
653                        ),
654                        wrapped=False,
655                    )
656                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
657                else:
658                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
659
660        postindex_props_sql = ""
661        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
662            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
663                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
664                wrapped=False,
665                prefix=" ",
666            )
667
668        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
669        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
670        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
671
672        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
673        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
674
675        postcreate_props_sql = ""
676        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
677            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
678                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
679                sep=" ",
680                prefix=" ",
681                wrapped=False,
682            )
683
684        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
685
686        postexpression_props_sql = ""
687        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
688            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
689                exp.Properties(
690                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
691                ),
692                sep=" ",
693                prefix=" ",
694                wrapped=False,
695            )
696
697        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
698        no_schema_binding = (
699            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
700        )
701
702        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
703        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
704
705        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
706        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
708    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
710        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
711
712        if when:
713            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
714            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
715            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
716
717        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
719    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
720        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
722    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
723        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
724        if with_:
725            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
726        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
728    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
729        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
730        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
731
732        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
734    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
735        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
736        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
738    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
739        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
740        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
741        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
742        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
744    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
746        if self.BIT_START:
747            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
748        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
750    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
752        if self.HEX_START:
753            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
754        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
756    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
758        if self.BYTE_START:
759            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
760        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
762    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
763        if self.RAW_START:
764            return f"{self.RAW_START}{expression.name}{self.RAW_END}"
765        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
767    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
769        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
770        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
771        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
773    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
774        type_value = expression.this
775        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
776        nested = ""
777        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
778        values = ""
779        if interior:
780            if expression.args.get("nested"):
781                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
782                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
783                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
784                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
785                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
786            else:
787                nested = f"({interior})"
788
789        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
791    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
792        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
793        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
794        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
795        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
797    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
799        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
800        using_sql = (
801            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
802            if expression.args.get("using")
803            else ""
804        )
805        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
806        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
807        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
810    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
812        kind = expression.args["kind"]
813        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
814        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
815        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
816        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
817        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
818        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
819        return (
820            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
821        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
823    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
824        return self.prepend_ctes(
825            expression,
826            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
827        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
829    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
830        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
832    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
833        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
834        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
835        count = expression.args.get("count")
836        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
837        if expression.args.get("percent"):
838            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
839        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
840        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
842    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
844        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
845        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
847    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
848        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
849            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
850        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
852    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
853        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
854        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
855        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
856        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
857        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
858        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
859        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
860        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
861        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
862        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
863        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
864        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
865        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
866        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
868    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
869        text = expression.name
870        lower = text.lower()
871        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
872        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
873        if (
874            expression.quoted
875            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
876            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
877            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
878        ):
879            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
880        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
882    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
883        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
884        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
885        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
886        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
887        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
889    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
890        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
891        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
893    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
894        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
896    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
897        root_properties = []
898        with_properties = []
899
900        for p in expression.expressions:
901            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
902            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
903                with_properties.append(p)
904            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
905                root_properties.append(p)
906
907        return self.root_properties(
908            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
909        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
911    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
912        if properties.expressions:
913            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
914        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
916    def properties(
917        self,
918        properties: exp.Properties,
919        prefix: str = "",
920        sep: str = ", ",
921        suffix: str = "",
922        wrapped: bool = True,
923    ) -> str:
924        if properties.expressions:
925            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
926            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
927            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
928        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
930    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
931        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
933    def locate_properties(
934        self, properties: exp.Properties
935    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
936        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
937            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
938        }
939
940        for p in properties.expressions:
941            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
942            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
943                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
944            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
945                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
946            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
947                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
948            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
949                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
950            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
951                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
952            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
953                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
954            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
955                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
956            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
957                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
958
959        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
961    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
962        property_cls = expression.__class__
963        if property_cls == exp.Property:
964            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
965
966        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
967        if not property_name:
968            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
969
970        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
972    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
973        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
974        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
975        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
977    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
978        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
979        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
980        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
982    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
983        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
984        local = expression.args.get("local")
985        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
986        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
987        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
988        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
989        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
991    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
992        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
993        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
994        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
 996    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
 997        if expression.args.get("default"):
 998            property = "DEFAULT"
 999        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1000            property = "ON"
1001        else:
1002            property = "OFF"
1003        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1005    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1006        if expression.args.get("no"):
1007            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1008        if expression.args.get("default"):
1009            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1010
1011        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1012        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1014    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1015        default = expression.args.get("default")
1016        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1017        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1018        if default or minimum or maximum:
1019            if default:
1020                prop = "DEFAULT"
1021            elif minimum:
1022                prop = "MINIMUM"
1023            else:
1024                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1025            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1026        units = expression.args.get("units")
1027        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1028        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1030    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1031        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1032        always = expression.args.get("always")
1033        default = expression.args.get("default")
1034        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1035        never = expression.args.get("never")
1036
1037        if autotemp is not None:
1038            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1039        elif always:
1040            prop = "ALWAYS"
1041        elif default:
1042            prop = "DEFAULT"
1043        elif manual:
1044            prop = "MANUAL"
1045        elif never:
1046            prop = "NEVER"
1047        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1049    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1050        no = expression.args.get("no")
1051        no = " NO" if no else ""
1052        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1053        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1054
1055        for_ = ""
1056        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1057            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1058        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1059            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1060        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1061            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1062        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1064    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1065        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1066        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1067        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1068        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1069        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1070        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1072    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1073        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1074        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1075        statistics_sql = ""
1076        if statistics is not None:
1077            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1078        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1080    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1081        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1082
1083        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1084            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1085        else:
1086            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1087
1088        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1089        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1090        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1091
1092        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1093        partition_sql = (
1094            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1095        )
1096        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1097        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1098        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1099        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1100        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1101        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1103    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1104        return self.prepend_ctes(
1105            expression,
1106            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1107        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1109    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1110        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1112    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1113        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1115    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1116        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1118    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1119        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1120        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1121        if constraint:
1122            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1123        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1124        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1125        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1127        if expressions:
1128            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1129        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1131    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1132        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1134    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1135        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1136        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1137        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1138        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1139        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1140        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1141        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1142        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1143        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1144        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1145        null = expression.args.get("null")
1146        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1147        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1149    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1150        table = ".".join(
1151            part
1152            for part in [
1153                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1154                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1155                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1156            ]
1157            if part
1158        )
1159
1160        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1161        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1162        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1163        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1164        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1165        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1166        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1167        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1168        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1169        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1170
1171        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1173    def tablesample_sql(
1174        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1175    ) -> str:
1176        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1177            table = expression.this.copy()
1178            table.set("alias", None)
1179            this = self.sql(table)
1180            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1181        else:
1182            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183            alias = ""
1184        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1185        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1186        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1187        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1188        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1189        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1190        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1191        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1192        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1193        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1194        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1195        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1196        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1197            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1198        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1199        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1200        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1201        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1203    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1205
1206        if expression.this:
1207            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1209            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1210            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1211            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1212            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1213
1214        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1215        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1216        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1217        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1218        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1219        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1221    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1222        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1224    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1228        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1229        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1230        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1231        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1233    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1234        args = self.expressions(expression)
1235        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1236        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1237        values = (
1238            f"({values})"
1239            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1240            else values
1241        )
1242        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1244    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1245        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1247    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1248        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1249        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1250        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1252    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1253        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1255    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1256        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1257        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1258        grouping_sets = (
1259            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1260        )
1261
1262        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1263        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1264            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1265        else:
1266            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1267            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1268
1269        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1270        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1271            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1272        else:
1273            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1274            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1275
1276        groupings = csv(
1277            grouping_sets,
1278            cube_sql,
1279            rollup_sql,
1280            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1281            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1282        )
1283
1284        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1285            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1286
1287        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1289    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1290        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1291        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1293    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1294        op_sql = " ".join(
1295            op
1296            for op in (
1297                expression.method,
1298                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1299                expression.side,
1300                expression.kind,
1301                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1302            )
1303            if op
1304        )
1305        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1306        using = expression.args.get("using")
1307
1308        if not on_sql and using:
1309            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1310
1311        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312
1313        if on_sql:
1314            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1315            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1316            if using:
1317                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1318            else:
1319                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1320        elif not op_sql:
1321            return f", {this_sql}"
1322
1323        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1324        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1326    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1327        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1328        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1329        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1331    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333
1334        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1335            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1336
1337        if expression.args.get("view"):
1338            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1339            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1340            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1341            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1342            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1343            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1344
1345        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1346        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1347        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1349    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1351        args = ", ".join(
1352            sql
1353            for sql in (
1354                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1355                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1356            )
1357            if sql
1358        )
1359        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1361    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1365    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1366        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1367        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1370        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1371        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1372        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1373        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1375    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1376        expressions = (
1377            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1378        )
1379        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1385        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1386            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1387            return ""
1388
1389        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1391        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1392        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1393
1394        if wait is not None:
1395            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1396                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1397            else:
1398                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1399
1400        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1402    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1403        text = expression.this or ""
1404        if expression.is_string:
1405            text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1406            if self.pretty:
1407                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1408            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{text}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1409        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1411    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1412        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1413        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1414        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1415        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1416        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1417        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1418        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1419        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1420        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1421        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1422        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1424    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1425        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1427    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1428        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1430    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1433        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1435    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1436        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1438    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1439        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1441    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1442        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1444    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1445        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1446        asc = not desc
1447
1448        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1449        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1450        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1451        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1452        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1453
1454        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1455        nulls_sort_change = ""
1456        if nulls_first and (
1457            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1458        ):
1459            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1460        elif (
1461            nulls_last
1462            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1463            and not nulls_are_last
1464        ):
1465            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1466
1467        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1468            self.unsupported(
1469                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1470            )
1471            nulls_sort_change = ""
1472
1473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1475    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1476        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1477        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1478        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1479        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1480        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1481        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1482        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1483        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1484        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1485        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1486        definition_sqls = [
1487            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1488            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1489        ]
1490        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1491        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1492        body = "".join(
1493            (
1494                partition,
1495                order,
1496                measures,
1497                rows,
1498                after,
1499                pattern,
1500                define,
1501            )
1502        )
1503        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1504        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1505        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1507    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1508        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1509
1510        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1511            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1512        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1513            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1514
1515        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1516
1517        return csv(
1518            *sqls,
1519            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1520            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1521            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1522            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1523            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1524            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1525            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1526            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1527            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1528            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1529            sep="",
1530        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1532    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1533        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1534    ) -> t.List[str]:
1535        return [
1536            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1537            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1538        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1540    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1541        return [
1542            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1543            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1544            if expression.args.get("windows")
1545            else "",
1546        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1548    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1549        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1550        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1551        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1553    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1554        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1555        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1556        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1557        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1558        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1560        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1561        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1562            expression,
1563            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1564            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1565            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1566        )
1567        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1569    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1571        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1572        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1573        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1575    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1576        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1578    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1579        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1580        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1581        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1582        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1583        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1585    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1587        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1588        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1590    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1592        kind = expression.text("kind")
1593        if kind:
1594            kind = f"{kind}."
1595        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1597    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1598        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1600    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1601        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1602        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1603
1604        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1605        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1606
1607        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1608        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1610    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1611        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1612        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1614    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1615        return self.prepend_ctes(
1616            expression,
1617            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1618        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1620    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1621        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1622        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1623        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1625    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1626        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1627        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1628        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1629            columns = alias.columns
1630            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1631        else:
1632            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1633        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1634        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1635        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1636        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1637        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1639    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1640        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1641        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1643    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1646        order = expression.args.get("order")
1647        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1648        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1649        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1650        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1651
1652        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1653
1654        first = expression.args.get("first")
1655        if first is None:
1656            first = ""
1657        else:
1658            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1659
1660        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1661            return f"{this} {alias}"
1662
1663        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1664        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1666    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1667        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1668        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1670    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1672        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1673        end = (
1674            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1675            or "CURRENT ROW"
1676        )
1677        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1679    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1682        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1684    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1687        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1688        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1690    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1691        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1692        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1693
1694        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1696    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1697        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1699    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1702            this = self.wrap(this)
1703        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1705    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1706        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1708    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1711
1712        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1713            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1714            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1715
1716        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1717
1718        if default:
1719            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1720
1721        statements.append("END")
1722
1723        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1724            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1725
1726        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1728    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1730        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1731        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1733    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1734        order = expression.args.get("order")
1735        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1736        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1738    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1741        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1743    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1744        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1745
1746        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1747            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1748        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1749            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1750        else:
1751            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1753    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1754        expressions = expression.expressions
1755        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1756            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1757        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1759    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1760        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1761        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1763    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1764        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1765        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1766        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1767        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1768        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1769        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1770        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1771        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1775        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1776        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1777        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1779    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1780        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1782    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1783        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1784        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1785        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1787    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1790    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1791        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1792        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1793        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1794        if unique_keys is not None:
1795            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1796        else:
1797            unique_keys = ""
1798        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1799        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1800        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1801        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1802        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1803        return self.func(
1804            "JSON_OBJECT",
1805            *expression.expressions,
1806            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1807        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1809    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1813        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1814        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1815        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1817    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1820        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1821        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1822        with_ = (
1823            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1824            if expressions
1825            else ""
1826        )
1827        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1829    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1830        query = expression.args.get("query")
1831        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1832        field = expression.args.get("field")
1833        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1834
1835        if query:
1836            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1837        elif unnest:
1838            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1839        elif field:
1840            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1841        else:
1842            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1843
1844        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1846    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1847        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1849    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1850        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1851        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1852            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1853        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1854
1855        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1856            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1857            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1858
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        if this:
1861            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1862            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1863
1864        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1866    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1867        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1869    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1872        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1873        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1874        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1875        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1877    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1878        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1880    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1881        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1882            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1883        else:
1884            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1885            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1886
1887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1889    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1890        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1891        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1892        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1893        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1895    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1896        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1898    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1899        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1901        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1903    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1904        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1906    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1908        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1909        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1911    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1912        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1914    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1915        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1917    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1918        if not self.pretty:
1919            return self.binary(expression, op)
1920
1921        sqls = tuple(
1922            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1923            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1924        )
1925
1926        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1927        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1929    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1930        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1932    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1933        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1935    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1936        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1938    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1939        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1941    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1942        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1944    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1947    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1948        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1950    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1951        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1954    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1955        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1957    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1958        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1960    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1963        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1964        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1965        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1967    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1970        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1971        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1972        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1973        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1974        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1975        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1976        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1978    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1979        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1980        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1981        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1982        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1983
1984        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1985            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1986
1987        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1989    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1990        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
1992    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1993        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1994        if chain is not None:
1995            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1996
1997        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
1999    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2000        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2001        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2002        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2004    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006
2007        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2008        if dtype:
2009            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2010            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2011            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2012            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2013            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2014
2015        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2016        if default:
2017            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2018
2019        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2020            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2021
2022        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2024    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2025        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2026            # Remove db from tables
2027            expression = expression.transform(
2028                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2029            )
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2033    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2034        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2035
2036        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2037            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2038        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2039            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2042        else:
2043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2044
2045        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2046        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2048    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2049        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2050        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2051        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2053    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2055        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2056        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2057
2058        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2059        if enforced is not None:
2060            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2061
2062        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2064    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2065        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2066        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2067
2068        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2069        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2070        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2072    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2075    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2078    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2079        return self.sql(
2080            exp.Cast(
2081                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2082                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2083            )
2084        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2086    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2087        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2089    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2090        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2091            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2092        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2094    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2097    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2100    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2103    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2106    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2109    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2112    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2115    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2118    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2121    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2124    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2127    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2128        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2129            return self.sql(
2130                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2131            )
2132        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2134    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2137    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2140    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2143    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2146    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2149    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2152    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2155    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2158    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2161    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2164    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2165        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2167    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2170    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2173    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2174        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2188        args = []
2189        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2190            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2191                for value in arg_value:
2192                    args.append(value)
2193            else:
2194                args.append(arg_value)
2195
2196        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2198    def func(
2199        self,
2200        name: str,
2201        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2202        prefix: str = "(",
2203        suffix: str = ")",
2204    ) -> str:
2205        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2207    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2208        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2209        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2210            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2211        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2213    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2214        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2216    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2217        return format_time(
2218            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2219        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2221    def expressions(
2222        self,
2223        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2224        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2225        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2226        flat: bool = False,
2227        indent: bool = True,
2228        sep: str = ", ",
2229        prefix: str = "",
2230    ) -> str:
2231        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2232
2233        if not expressions:
2234            return ""
2235
2236        if flat:
2237            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2238
2239        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2240
2241        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2242        pad = " " * self.pad
2243        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2244
2245        result_sqls = []
2246        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2247            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2248            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2249
2250            if self.pretty:
2251                if self.leading_comma:
2252                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2253                else:
2254                    result_sqls.append(
2255                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2256                    )
2257            else:
2258                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2259
2260        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2261        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2263    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2264        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2265        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2266        if flat:
2267            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2268        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2270    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2271        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2272        if not property_name:
2273            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2274        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2276    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        op = self.seg(op)
2279        return self.query_modifiers(
2280            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2281        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2283    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2284        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2286    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2287        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2289    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2292        expressions = (
2293            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2294        )
2295        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2297    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2300        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2302    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2305    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2306        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2307        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2308        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2309        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2310
2311        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2312        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2313            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2314            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2315                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2316        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2317            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2318                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2319            else:
2320                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2321        else:
2322            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2323        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2325    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2328        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2329        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2331    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2332        if expression.args.get("format"):
2333            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2334
2335        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2337    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2340        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2341        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2342        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2344    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2346        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2347        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2348        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2350    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2353    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2354        return ""
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2357def cached_generator(
2358    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2359) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2360    """Returns a cached generator."""
2361    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2362    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2363    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.