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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  83        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  84        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  88        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  89        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  90        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  91        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  92        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  93        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  94        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  95        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  97        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  98        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  99        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100    }
 101
 102    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 103    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 104
 105    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 106    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 107
 108    # Always do union distinct or union all
 109    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 110
 111    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 112    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 115    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 118    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 121    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 122
 123    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 124    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 127    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 130    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 131
 132    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 133    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 134
 135    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 136    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 137
 138    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 139    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 140
 141    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 142    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 143
 144    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 145    JOIN_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 148    TABLE_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 151    QUERY_HINTS = True
 152
 153    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 154    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 155
 156    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 157    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 160    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 163    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 166    RETURNING_END = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 169    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 172    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 175    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 178    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 179
 180    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 181    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 182
 183    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 184    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 185    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 186    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 187
 188    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 189        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 196    }
 197
 198    STAR_MAPPING = {
 199        "except": "EXCEPT",
 200        "replace": "REPLACE",
 201    }
 202
 203    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 204        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 205        "seconds": "second",
 206        "minutes": "minute",
 207        "hours": "hour",
 208        "days": "day",
 209        "weeks": "week",
 210        "months": "month",
 211        "quarters": "quarter",
 212        "years": "year",
 213    }
 214
 215    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 216
 217    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 218
 219    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 220
 221    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 222        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 223        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 240        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 241        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 244        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 250        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 252        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 253        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 254        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 256        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 258        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 260        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 269        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 278        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279    }
 280
 281    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 282    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 283
 284    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 285    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 286        exp.Create,
 287        exp.Delete,
 288        exp.Drop,
 289        exp.From,
 290        exp.Insert,
 291        exp.Join,
 292        exp.Select,
 293        exp.Update,
 294        exp.Where,
 295        exp.With,
 296    )
 297
 298    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 299    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 300        exp.Column,
 301        exp.Literal,
 302        exp.Neg,
 303        exp.Paren,
 304    )
 305
 306    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 307
 308    # Autofilled
 309    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 310    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 311    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 312    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 313    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 314    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 315    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 316    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 317    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 318    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 319
 320    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 321
 322    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 323    QUOTE_START = "'"
 324    QUOTE_END = "'"
 325    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 326    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 327    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 328
 329    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 330    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 331    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 336
 337    __slots__ = (
 338        "pretty",
 339        "identify",
 340        "normalize",
 341        "pad",
 342        "_indent",
 343        "normalize_functions",
 344        "unsupported_level",
 345        "max_unsupported",
 346        "leading_comma",
 347        "max_text_width",
 348        "comments",
 349        "unsupported_messages",
 350        "_escaped_quote_end",
 351        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 352        "_cache",
 353    )
 354
 355    def __init__(
 356        self,
 357        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 358        identify: str | bool = False,
 359        normalize: bool = False,
 360        pad: int = 2,
 361        indent: int = 2,
 362        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 363        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 364        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 365        leading_comma: bool = False,
 366        max_text_width: int = 80,
 367        comments: bool = True,
 368    ):
 369        import sqlglot
 370
 371        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 372        self.identify = identify
 373        self.normalize = normalize
 374        self.pad = pad
 375        self._indent = indent
 376        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 377        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 378        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 379        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 380        self.comments = comments
 381
 382        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 383        self.normalize_functions = (
 384            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 385        )
 386
 387        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 388        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 389        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 390            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 391        )
 392        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 393
 394    def generate(
 395        self,
 396        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 397        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 398    ) -> str:
 399        """
 400        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 401
 402        Args:
 403            expression: The syntax tree.
 404            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 405                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 406
 407        Returns:
 408            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 409        """
 410        if cache is not None:
 411            self._cache = cache
 412
 413        self.unsupported_messages = []
 414        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 415        self._cache = None
 416
 417        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 418            return sql
 419
 420        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 421            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 422                logger.warning(msg)
 423        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 424            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 425
 426        if self.pretty:
 427            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 428        return sql
 429
 430    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 431        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 432            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 433        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 434
 435    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 436        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 437
 438    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 439        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 440
 441    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 442        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 443        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 444        return comment
 445
 446    def maybe_comment(
 447        self,
 448        sql: str,
 449        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 450        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 451    ) -> str:
 452        comments = (
 453            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 454            if self.comments
 455            else None
 456        )
 457
 458        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 459            return sql
 460
 461        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 462        comments_sql = sep.join(
 463            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 464        )
 465
 466        if not comments_sql:
 467            return sql
 468
 469        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 470            return (
 471                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 472                if sql[0].isspace()
 473                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 474            )
 475
 476        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 477
 478    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 479        this_sql = self.indent(
 480            self.sql(expression)
 481            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 482            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 483            level=1,
 484            pad=0,
 485        )
 486        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 487
 488    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 489        original = self.identify
 490        self.identify = False
 491        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 492        self.identify = original
 493        return result
 494
 495    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 496        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 497            return name.upper()
 498        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 499            return name.lower()
 500        return name
 501
 502    def indent(
 503        self,
 504        sql: str,
 505        level: int = 0,
 506        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 507        skip_first: bool = False,
 508        skip_last: bool = False,
 509    ) -> str:
 510        if not self.pretty:
 511            return sql
 512
 513        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 514        lines = sql.split("\n")
 515
 516        return "\n".join(
 517            line
 518            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 519            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 520            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 521        )
 522
 523    def sql(
 524        self,
 525        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 526        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 527        comment: bool = True,
 528    ) -> str:
 529        if not expression:
 530            return ""
 531
 532        if isinstance(expression, str):
 533            return expression
 534
 535        if key:
 536            value = expression.args.get(key)
 537            if value:
 538                return self.sql(value)
 539            return ""
 540
 541        if self._cache is not None:
 542            expression_id = hash(expression)
 543
 544            if expression_id in self._cache:
 545                return self._cache[expression_id]
 546
 547        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 548
 549        if callable(transform):
 550            sql = transform(self, expression)
 551        elif transform:
 552            sql = transform
 553        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 554            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 555
 556            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 557                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 558            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 559                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 561                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 562            else:
 563                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 564        else:
 565            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 566
 567        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 568
 569        if self._cache is not None:
 570            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 571        return sql
 572
 573    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 574        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 575        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 576        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 577
 578    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 579        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 580        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 581        options = expression.args.get("options")
 582        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 583        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 584        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 585        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 586        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 587
 588    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 589        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 590            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 591        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 592        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 593
 594    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 595        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 596
 597        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 598            join_mark = ""
 599            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 600
 601        column = ".".join(
 602            self.sql(part)
 603            for part in (
 604                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 605                expression.args.get("db"),
 606                expression.args.get("table"),
 607                expression.args.get("this"),
 608            )
 609            if part
 610        )
 611
 612        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 613
 614    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 616        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 617        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 618        return f"{position}{this}"
 619
 620    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 621        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 623        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 624        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 625        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 626        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 627        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 628        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 629
 630        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 631
 632    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 634        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 635        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 636
 637    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 640            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 641        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 642            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 643        else:
 644            persisted = ""
 645        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 646
 647    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 648        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 649
 650    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 651        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 652            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 653        else:
 654            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 655
 656        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 657
 658    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 659        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 660    ) -> str:
 661        this = ""
 662        if expression.this is not None:
 663            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 664            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 665
 666        start = expression.args.get("start")
 667        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 668        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 669        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 670        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 671        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 672        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 673        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 674        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 675        cycle_sql = ""
 676
 677        if cycle is not None:
 678            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 679            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 680
 681        sequence_opts = ""
 682        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 683            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 684            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 685
 686        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 687        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 688
 689        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 690
 691    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 692        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 693
 694    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 695        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 696        if desc is not None:
 697            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 698        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 699
 700    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 702        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 703        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 704
 705    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 706        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 707
 708    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 709        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 710        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 711        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 712
 713        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 714
 715        properties_sql = ""
 716        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 717            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 718        ):
 719            properties_sql = self.sql(
 720                exp.Properties(
 721                    expressions=[
 722                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 724                    ]
 725                )
 726            )
 727
 728        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 729        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 730        if expression_sql:
 731            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 732
 733            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 734                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 735                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 736                        exp.Properties(
 737                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 738                        ),
 739                        wrapped=False,
 740                    )
 741                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 742                else:
 743                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 744
 745        postindex_props_sql = ""
 746        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 747            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 748                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 749                wrapped=False,
 750                prefix=" ",
 751            )
 752
 753        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 754        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 755        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 756
 757        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 758        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 759
 760        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 761        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 762            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 763                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 764                sep=" ",
 765                prefix=" ",
 766                wrapped=False,
 767            )
 768
 769        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 770
 771        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 772        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 773            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 774                exp.Properties(
 775                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 776                ),
 777                sep=" ",
 778                prefix=" ",
 779                wrapped=False,
 780            )
 781
 782        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 783        no_schema_binding = (
 784            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 785        )
 786
 787        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 788        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 789
 790        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 791        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 792
 793    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 796
 797        if when:
 798            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 799            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 800            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 801
 802        return f"CLONE {this}"
 803
 804    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 805        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 806
 807    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 808        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 809        if with_:
 810            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 811        return sql
 812
 813    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 814        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 815        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 816
 817        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 818
 819    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 820        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 821        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 822
 823    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 824        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 826        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 827        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 828
 829    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        if self.BIT_START:
 832            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 833        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 834
 835    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837        if self.HEX_START:
 838            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 839        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 840
 841    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        if self.BYTE_START:
 844            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 845        return this
 846
 847    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 848        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 849        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 850
 851    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 853        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 854        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 855        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 856
 857    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 858        type_value = expression.this
 859
 860        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 861            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 862        else:
 863            type_sql = (
 864                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 865                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 866                else type_value
 867            )
 868
 869        nested = ""
 870        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 871        values = ""
 872
 873        if interior:
 874            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 875                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 876                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 877                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 878                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 879                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 880            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 881                nested = f" {interior}"
 882            else:
 883                nested = f"({interior})"
 884
 885        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 886        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 887            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 888            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 889        ):
 890            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 891
 892        return type_sql
 893
 894    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 895        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 896        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 897        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 898        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 899
 900    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 902        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 903        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 904        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 905        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 906        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 907        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 908        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 909        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 910        if self.RETURNING_END:
 911            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 912        else:
 913            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 914        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 915
 916    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 918        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 919        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 920        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 921        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 922        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 923        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 924        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 925        return (
 926            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 927        )
 928
 929    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 930        return self.prepend_ctes(
 931            expression,
 932            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 933        )
 934
 935    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 936        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 937
 938    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 939        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 940        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 941        count = expression.args.get("count")
 942        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 943        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 944            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 945        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 946        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 947
 948    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 951        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 952
 953    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 954        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 955            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 956            return ""
 957
 958        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 959
 960    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 961        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 962        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 963        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 964        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 966        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 967        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 968        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 969        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 970        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 971        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 972        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 973        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 974        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 975        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 976
 977    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 978        text = expression.name
 979        lower = text.lower()
 980        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 981        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 982        if (
 983            expression.quoted
 984            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 985            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 986            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 987        ):
 988            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 989        return text
 990
 991    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 992        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 993        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 994        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 995        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 996        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 997
 998    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 999        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1000        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1001
1002    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1003        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1004
1005    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1006        root_properties = []
1007        with_properties = []
1008
1009        for p in expression.expressions:
1010            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1011            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1012                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1014                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1015
1016        return self.root_properties(
1017            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1018        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1019
1020    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1021        if properties.expressions:
1022            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1023        return ""
1024
1025    def properties(
1026        self,
1027        properties: exp.Properties,
1028        prefix: str = "",
1029        sep: str = ", ",
1030        suffix: str = "",
1031        wrapped: bool = True,
1032    ) -> str:
1033        if properties.expressions:
1034            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1035            if expressions:
1036                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1037                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1038        return ""
1039
1040    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1041        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1042
1043    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1044        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1045        for p in properties.expressions:
1046            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1047            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1048                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1049            else:
1050                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1051
1052        return properties_locs
1053
1054    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1055        property_cls = expression.__class__
1056        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1057            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1058
1059        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1060        if not property_name:
1061            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1062
1063        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1064
1065    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1066        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1067        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1068        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1069
1070    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1071        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1072        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1073        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1074
1075    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1076        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1077        local = expression.args.get("local")
1078        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1079        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1080        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1081        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1082        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1083
1084    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1085        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1086        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1087        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1088
1089    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1090        if expression.args.get("default"):
1091            property = "DEFAULT"
1092        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1093            property = "ON"
1094        else:
1095            property = "OFF"
1096        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1097
1098    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1099        if expression.args.get("no"):
1100            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1101        if expression.args.get("default"):
1102            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1103
1104        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1105        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1106
1107    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1108        default = expression.args.get("default")
1109        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1110        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1111        if default or minimum or maximum:
1112            if default:
1113                prop = "DEFAULT"
1114            elif minimum:
1115                prop = "MINIMUM"
1116            else:
1117                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1118            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1119        units = expression.args.get("units")
1120        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1121        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1122
1123    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1124        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1125        always = expression.args.get("always")
1126        default = expression.args.get("default")
1127        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1128        never = expression.args.get("never")
1129
1130        if autotemp is not None:
1131            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1132        elif always:
1133            prop = "ALWAYS"
1134        elif default:
1135            prop = "DEFAULT"
1136        elif manual:
1137            prop = "MANUAL"
1138        elif never:
1139            prop = "NEVER"
1140        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1141
1142    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1143        no = expression.args.get("no")
1144        no = " NO" if no else ""
1145        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1146        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1147
1148        for_ = ""
1149        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1150            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1151        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1152            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1153        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1154            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1155        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1156
1157    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1158        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1159        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1160        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1161        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1162        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1163        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1164
1165    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1166        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1167        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1168        statistics_sql = ""
1169        if statistics is not None:
1170            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1171        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1172
1173    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1174        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1175
1176        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1177            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1178        else:
1179            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1180
1181        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1182        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1183        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1184
1185        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1186
1187        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1188        partition_sql = (
1189            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1190        )
1191        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1192        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1193        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1194        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1195        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1196
1197        if self.RETURNING_END:
1198            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1199        else:
1200            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1201
1202        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1203        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1204
1205    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1206        return self.prepend_ctes(
1207            expression,
1208            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1209        )
1210
1211    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1212        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1213
1214    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1215        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1216
1217    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1218        return expression.name.upper()
1219
1220    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1221        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1222        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1223        if constraint:
1224            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1225        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1226        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1227        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1228        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1229        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1230        if expressions:
1231            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1232        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1233
1234    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1235        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1236
1237    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1238        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1239        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1240        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1241        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1242        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1243        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1244        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1245        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1246        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1247        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1248        null = expression.args.get("null")
1249        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1250        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1251
1252    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1253        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1254
1255    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1256        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1257        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1258        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1259        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1260
1261    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1262        table = ".".join(
1263            part
1264            for part in [
1265                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1266                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1267                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1268            ]
1269            if part
1270        )
1271
1272        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1273        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1274        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1275        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1276        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1277        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1278        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1279        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1280        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1281        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1282
1283        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1284
1285    def tablesample_sql(
1286        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1287    ) -> str:
1288        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1289            table = expression.this.copy()
1290            table.set("alias", None)
1291            this = self.sql(table)
1292            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1293        else:
1294            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295            alias = ""
1296        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1297        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1298        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1299        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1300        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1301        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1302        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1303        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1304        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1305        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1306        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1307        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1308        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1309            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1310        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1311        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1312        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1313        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1314
1315    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1316        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1317
1318        if expression.this:
1319            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1321            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1322            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1323            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1324            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1325
1326        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1327        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1328        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1329        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1330        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1331        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1332        if include_nulls is not None:
1333            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1334        else:
1335            nulls = ""
1336        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1337
1338    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1339        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1340
1341    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1344        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1345        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1347        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1348        if self.RETURNING_END:
1349            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1350        else:
1351            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1352        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1353        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1354
1355    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1356        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1357        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1358            args = self.expressions(expression)
1359            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1360            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1361            values = (
1362                f"({values})"
1363                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1364                else values
1365            )
1366            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1367
1368        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1369        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1370        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1371        # very slow.
1372        expression = expression.copy()
1373        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1374
1375        selects = []
1376
1377        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1378            row = tup.expressions
1379
1380            if i == 0 and column_names:
1381                row = [
1382                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1383                ]
1384
1385            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1386
1387        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1388        if len(selects) > 1:
1389            for select in selects[1:]:
1390                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1391                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1392                )
1393
1394        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1395
1396    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1397        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1398
1399    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1400        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1401        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1402        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1403
1404    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1405        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1406
1407    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1408        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1409
1410        if expression.args.get("all"):
1411            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1412
1413        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1414        grouping_sets = (
1415            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1416        )
1417
1418        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1419        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1420            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1421        else:
1422            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1423            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1424
1425        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1426        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1427            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1428        else:
1429            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1430            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1431
1432        groupings = csv(
1433            grouping_sets,
1434            cube_sql,
1435            rollup_sql,
1436            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1437            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1438        )
1439
1440        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1441            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1442
1443        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1444
1445    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1446        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1447        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1448
1449    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1450        op_sql = " ".join(
1451            op
1452            for op in (
1453                expression.method,
1454                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1455                expression.side,
1456                expression.kind,
1457                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1458            )
1459            if op
1460        )
1461        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1462        using = expression.args.get("using")
1463
1464        if not on_sql and using:
1465            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1466
1467        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468
1469        if on_sql:
1470            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1471            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1472            if using:
1473                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1474            else:
1475                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1476        elif not op_sql:
1477            return f", {this_sql}"
1478
1479        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1480        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1481
1482    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1483        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1484        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1485        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1486
1487    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1489
1490        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1491            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1492
1493        if expression.args.get("view"):
1494            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1495            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1496            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1497            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1498            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1499            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1500
1501        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1502        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1503        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1504
1505    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1507        args = ", ".join(
1508            sql
1509            for sql in (
1510                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1511                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1512            )
1513            if sql
1514        )
1515        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1516
1517    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1520
1521    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1522        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1523        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1526        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1527        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1528        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1529        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1530
1531    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1532        expressions = (
1533            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1534        )
1535        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1536        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1537
1538    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1539        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1540
1541    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1542        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1543            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1544            return ""
1545
1546        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1547        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1548        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1549        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1550
1551        if wait is not None:
1552            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1553                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1554            else:
1555                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1556
1557        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1558
1559    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1560        text = expression.this or ""
1561        if expression.is_string:
1562            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1563        return text
1564
1565    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1566        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1567        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1568            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1569        elif self.pretty:
1570            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1571        return text
1572
1573    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1574        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1575        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1576        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1577        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1578        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1579        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1580        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1581        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1582        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1583        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1584        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1585
1586    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1587        return "NULL"
1588
1589    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1590        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1591
1592    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1594        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1595        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1596
1597    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1598        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1599
1600    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1601        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1602
1603    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1604        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1605
1606    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1607        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1608        asc = not desc
1609
1610        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1611        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1612        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1613        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1614        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1615
1616        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1617        nulls_sort_change = ""
1618        if nulls_first and (
1619            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1620        ):
1621            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1622        elif (
1623            nulls_last
1624            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1625            and not nulls_are_last
1626        ):
1627            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1628
1629        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1630            self.unsupported(
1631                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1632            )
1633            nulls_sort_change = ""
1634
1635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1636
1637    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1638        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1639        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1640        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1641        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1642        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1643        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1644        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1645        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1646        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1647        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1648        definition_sqls = [
1649            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1650            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1651        ]
1652        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1653        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1654        body = "".join(
1655            (
1656                partition,
1657                order,
1658                measures,
1659                rows,
1660                after,
1661                pattern,
1662                define,
1663            )
1664        )
1665        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1666        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1667        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1668
1669    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1670        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1671
1672        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1673        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1674
1675        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1676            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1677        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1678            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1679
1680        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1681
1682        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1683            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1684            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1685            else []
1686        )
1687
1688        return csv(
1689            *sqls,
1690            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1691            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1692            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1693            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1694            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1695            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1696            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1697            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1698            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1699            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1700            sep="",
1701        )
1702
1703    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1704        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1705    ) -> t.List[str]:
1706        return [
1707            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1708            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1709        ]
1710
1711    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1712        return [
1713            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1714            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1715            if expression.args.get("windows")
1716            else "",
1717            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1718            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1719            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1720        ]
1721
1722    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1723        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1724        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1725        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1726
1727    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1728        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1729        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1730        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1731        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1732        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1733        top = (
1734            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1735            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1736            else ""
1737        )
1738
1739        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1740
1741        if kind:
1742            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1743                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1744            else:
1745                if kind == "STRUCT":
1746                    expressions = self.expressions(
1747                        sqls=[
1748                            self.sql(
1749                                exp.Struct(
1750                                    expressions=[
1751                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1752                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1753                                        )
1754                                        for e in expression.expressions
1755                                    ]
1756                                )
1757                            )
1758                        ]
1759                    )
1760                kind = ""
1761
1762        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1763        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1764            expression,
1765            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1766            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1767            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1768        )
1769        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1770
1771    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1773        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1774        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1775        return f"{this}{sql}"
1776
1777    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1778        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1779
1780    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1781        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1782        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1783        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1784        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1785        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1786
1787    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1789        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1790        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1791
1792    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1794        kind = expression.text("kind")
1795        if kind:
1796            kind = f"{kind}."
1797        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1798
1799    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1800        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1801
1802    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1803        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1805
1806        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1807        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1808
1809        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1810        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1811
1812    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1813        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1814        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1815
1816    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1817        return self.prepend_ctes(
1818            expression,
1819            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1820        )
1821
1822    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1823        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1824        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1825        return f"UNION{kind}"
1826
1827    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1828        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1830        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1831            columns = alias.columns
1832            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1833        else:
1834            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1835        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1836        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1837        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1838        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1839        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1840
1841    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1842        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1843        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1844
1845    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1848        order = expression.args.get("order")
1849        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1850        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1851        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1853
1854        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1855
1856        first = expression.args.get("first")
1857        if first is None:
1858            first = ""
1859        else:
1860            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1861
1862        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1863            return f"{this} {alias}"
1864
1865        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1866        return f"{this} ({args})"
1867
1868    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1869        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1870        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1871
1872    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1874        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1875        end = (
1876            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1877            or "CURRENT ROW"
1878        )
1879        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1880
1881    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1884        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1885
1886    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1888        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1889        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1890        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1891
1892    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1893        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1894        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1895
1896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1897
1898    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1899        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1900
1901    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1902        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1903
1904    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1906        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1907            this = self.wrap(this)
1908        return f"ANY {this}"
1909
1910    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1911        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1912
1913    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1916
1917        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1918            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1919            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1920
1921        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1922
1923        if default:
1924            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1925
1926        statements.append("END")
1927
1928        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1929            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1930
1931        return " ".join(statements)
1932
1933    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1937
1938    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1939        order = expression.args.get("order")
1940        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1941        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1942
1943    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1944        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1946        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1947
1948    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1949        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1950
1951        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1952            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1953        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1954            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1955        else:
1956            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1957
1958    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1959        expressions = expression.expressions
1960        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1961            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1962        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1963
1964    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1965        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1966        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1967
1968    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1969        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1970        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1971        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1972        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1973        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1974        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1975        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1976        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1977
1978    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1980        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1981        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1982        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1983
1984    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1985        expression = expression.copy()
1986        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1987
1988    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1989        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1990        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1991        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1992
1993    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1994        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1995
1996    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1997        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1998        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1999        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2000        if unique_keys is not None:
2001            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2002        else:
2003            unique_keys = ""
2004        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2005        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2006        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2007        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2008        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2009        return self.func(
2010            "JSON_OBJECT",
2011            *expression.expressions,
2012            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2013        )
2014
2015    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2017        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2018        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2019        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2020        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2021        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2022
2023    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2025        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2026        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2027        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2028        with_ = (
2029            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2030            if expressions
2031            else ""
2032        )
2033        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2034
2035    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2036        query = expression.args.get("query")
2037        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2038        field = expression.args.get("field")
2039        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2040
2041        if query:
2042            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2043        elif unnest:
2044            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2045        elif field:
2046            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2047        else:
2048            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2049
2050        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2051
2052    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2053        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2054
2055    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2056        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2057        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2058            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2059        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2060
2061        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2062            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2063            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2064
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        if this:
2067            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2068            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2069
2070        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2071
2072    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2073        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2074
2075    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2077        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2078        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2079        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2080        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2081        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2082
2083    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2084        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2085
2086    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2087        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2088            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2089        else:
2090            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2091            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2092
2093        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2094
2095    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2096        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2097        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2098        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2099        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2100
2101    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2102        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2103
2104    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2105        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2106        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2108
2109    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2110        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2111
2112    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2114        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2115        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2116
2117    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2119
2120    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2121        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2122
2123    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2124        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2125
2126    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2127        if not self.pretty:
2128            return self.binary(expression, op)
2129
2130        sqls = tuple(
2131            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2132            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2133        )
2134
2135        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2136        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2137
2138    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2140
2141    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2142        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2143
2144    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2145        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2146
2147    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2149
2150    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2152
2153    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2155
2156    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2157        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2158        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2159        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2160
2161    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2162        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2164
2165    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2167
2168    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2169        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2170
2171    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2173        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2174        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2175        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2176        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2177
2178    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2181        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2182        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2183        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2184        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2185        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2186        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2187        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2188
2189    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2190        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2191        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2192        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2193        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2194
2195        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2196            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2197
2198        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2199
2200    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2201        return "BEGIN"
2202
2203    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2204        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2205        if chain is not None:
2206            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2207
2208        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2209
2210    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2211        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2212        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2213        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2214
2215    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217
2218        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2219        if dtype:
2220            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2221            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2222            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2223            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2224            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2225
2226        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2227        if default:
2228            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2229
2230        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2231            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2232
2233        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2234
2235    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2236        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2237            # Remove db from tables
2238            expression = expression.transform(
2239                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2240            )
2241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2242        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2243
2244    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2245        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2246
2247        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2248            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2249        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2250            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2251        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2252            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2253        else:
2254            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2255
2256        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2257        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2258
2259    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2260        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2261        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2262        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2263
2264    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2267        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2268
2269        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2270        if enforced is not None:
2271            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2272
2273        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2274
2275    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2276        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2277        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2278
2279        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2280        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2281        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2282
2283    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2285
2286    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2287        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2288
2289    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2290        return self.sql(
2291            exp.Cast(
2292                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2293                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2294            )
2295        )
2296
2297    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2299
2300    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2301        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2302            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2303        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2304
2305    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2307
2308    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2310
2311    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2313
2314    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2315        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2316
2317    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2319
2320    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2322
2323    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2325
2326    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2328
2329    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2331
2332    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2334
2335    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2337
2338    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2339        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2340            return self.sql(
2341                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2342            )
2343        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2344
2345    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2347
2348    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2350
2351    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2353
2354    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2356
2357    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2359
2360    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2362
2363    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2365
2366    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2368
2369    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2371
2372    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2373        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2374
2375    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2376        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2377
2378    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2380
2381    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2382        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2383
2384    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2385        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2386
2387    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2389        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2392        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2393
2394    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2395        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2396        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2397
2398    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2399        args = []
2400
2401        for key in expression.arg_types:
2402            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2403
2404            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2405                for value in arg_value:
2406                    args.append(value)
2407            elif arg_value is not None:
2408                args.append(arg_value)
2409
2410        if self.normalize_functions:
2411            name = expression.sql_name()
2412        else:
2413            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2414
2415        return self.func(name, *args)
2416
2417    def func(
2418        self,
2419        name: str,
2420        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2421        prefix: str = "(",
2422        suffix: str = ")",
2423    ) -> str:
2424        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2425
2426    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2427        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2428        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2429            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2430        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2431
2432    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2433        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2434
2435    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2436        return format_time(
2437            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2438        )
2439
2440    def expressions(
2441        self,
2442        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2443        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2444        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2445        flat: bool = False,
2446        indent: bool = True,
2447        skip_first: bool = False,
2448        sep: str = ", ",
2449        prefix: str = "",
2450    ) -> str:
2451        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2452
2453        if not expressions:
2454            return ""
2455
2456        if flat:
2457            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2458
2459        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2460
2461        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2462        pad = " " * self.pad
2463        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2464
2465        result_sqls = []
2466        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2467            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2468            if not sql:
2469                continue
2470
2471            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2472
2473            if self.pretty:
2474                if self.leading_comma:
2475                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2476                else:
2477                    result_sqls.append(
2478                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2479                    )
2480            else:
2481                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2482
2483        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2484        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2485
2486    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2487        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2488        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2489        if flat:
2490            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2491        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2492
2493    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2494        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2495        if not property_name:
2496            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2497        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2498
2499    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        op = self.seg(op)
2502        return self.query_modifiers(
2503            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2504        )
2505
2506    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2507        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2508
2509    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2510        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2511
2512    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2515        expressions = (
2516            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2517        )
2518        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2519
2520    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2522        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2523        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2524
2525    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2526        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2527
2528    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2529        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2530        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2531        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2532        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2533
2534        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2535        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2536            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2537            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2538                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2539        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2540            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2541                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2542            else:
2543                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2544        else:
2545            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2546        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2547
2548    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2549        table = expression.this
2550        table_alias = ""
2551
2552        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2553        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2554            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2555            table = table.copy()
2556            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2557
2558        this = self.sql(table)
2559        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2560        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2561        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2562
2563        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2564
2565    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2566        if expression.args.get("format"):
2567            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2568
2569        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2570
2571    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2574        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2575        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2576        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2577
2578    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2581        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2582        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2583
2584    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2585        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2586
2587    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2588        return ""
2589
2590    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2591        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2592        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2593        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2594        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2595        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2596
2597    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2599        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2600
2601        if having:
2602            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2603
2604        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2605
2606    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2607        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2608        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2609        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2610        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2611        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2612        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2613        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2614        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2615        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2616        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2617        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2618        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2619        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2620
2621    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2622        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2623        if key_block_size:
2624            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2625
2626        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2627        if using:
2628            return f"USING {using}"
2629
2630        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2631        if parser:
2632            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2633
2634        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2635        if comment:
2636            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2637
2638        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2639        if visible is not None:
2640            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2641
2642        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2643        if engine_attr:
2644            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2645
2646        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2647        if secondary_engine_attr:
2648            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2649
2650        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2651        return ""
2652
2653    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2654        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2655        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2657        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2658        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2659        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2660        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2661        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2662        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2663        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2664        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2665
2666    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2667        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2668            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2669
2670        case = exp.Case().when(
2671            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2672            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2673            copy=False,
2674        )
2675        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2676        if else_cond:
2677            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2678
2679        return self.sql(case)
2680
2681
2682def cached_generator(
2683    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2684) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2685    """Returns a cached generator."""
2686    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2687    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2688    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  77        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 104    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 107    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 108
 109    # Always do union distinct or union all
 110    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 111
 112    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 113    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 116    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 119    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 122    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 125    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 128    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 131    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 134    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 135
 136    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 137    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 138
 139    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 140    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 141
 142    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 143    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 144
 145    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 146    JOIN_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 149    TABLE_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 152    QUERY_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 155    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 156
 157    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 158    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 161    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 164    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 167    RETURNING_END = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 170    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 173    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 176    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 179    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 180
 181    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 182    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 183
 184    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 185    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 186    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 187    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 188
 189    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 190        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 197    }
 198
 199    STAR_MAPPING = {
 200        "except": "EXCEPT",
 201        "replace": "REPLACE",
 202    }
 203
 204    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 205        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 206        "seconds": "second",
 207        "minutes": "minute",
 208        "hours": "hour",
 209        "days": "day",
 210        "weeks": "week",
 211        "months": "month",
 212        "quarters": "quarter",
 213        "years": "year",
 214    }
 215
 216    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 217
 218    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 219
 220    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 221
 222    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 223        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 245        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 251        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 252        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 254        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 257        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 259        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 261        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 279        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280    }
 281
 282    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 283    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 284
 285    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 286    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 287        exp.Create,
 288        exp.Delete,
 289        exp.Drop,
 290        exp.From,
 291        exp.Insert,
 292        exp.Join,
 293        exp.Select,
 294        exp.Update,
 295        exp.Where,
 296        exp.With,
 297    )
 298
 299    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 300    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 301        exp.Column,
 302        exp.Literal,
 303        exp.Neg,
 304        exp.Paren,
 305    )
 306
 307    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 308
 309    # Autofilled
 310    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 311    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 312    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 313    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 314    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 315    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 316    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 317    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 318    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 319    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 320
 321    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 322
 323    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 324    QUOTE_START = "'"
 325    QUOTE_END = "'"
 326    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 327    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 328    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 329
 330    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 331    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337
 338    __slots__ = (
 339        "pretty",
 340        "identify",
 341        "normalize",
 342        "pad",
 343        "_indent",
 344        "normalize_functions",
 345        "unsupported_level",
 346        "max_unsupported",
 347        "leading_comma",
 348        "max_text_width",
 349        "comments",
 350        "unsupported_messages",
 351        "_escaped_quote_end",
 352        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 353        "_cache",
 354    )
 355
 356    def __init__(
 357        self,
 358        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 359        identify: str | bool = False,
 360        normalize: bool = False,
 361        pad: int = 2,
 362        indent: int = 2,
 363        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 364        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 365        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 366        leading_comma: bool = False,
 367        max_text_width: int = 80,
 368        comments: bool = True,
 369    ):
 370        import sqlglot
 371
 372        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 373        self.identify = identify
 374        self.normalize = normalize
 375        self.pad = pad
 376        self._indent = indent
 377        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 378        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 379        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 380        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 381        self.comments = comments
 382
 383        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 384        self.normalize_functions = (
 385            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 386        )
 387
 388        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 389        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 390        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 391            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 392        )
 393        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 394
 395    def generate(
 396        self,
 397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 398        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 399    ) -> str:
 400        """
 401        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 402
 403        Args:
 404            expression: The syntax tree.
 405            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 406                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 407
 408        Returns:
 409            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 410        """
 411        if cache is not None:
 412            self._cache = cache
 413
 414        self.unsupported_messages = []
 415        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 416        self._cache = None
 417
 418        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 422            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 423                logger.warning(msg)
 424        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 425            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 426
 427        if self.pretty:
 428            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 429        return sql
 430
 431    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 432        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 433            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 434        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 435
 436    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 437        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 438
 439    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 440        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 441
 442    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 443        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 444        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 445        return comment
 446
 447    def maybe_comment(
 448        self,
 449        sql: str,
 450        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 451        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 452    ) -> str:
 453        comments = (
 454            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 455            if self.comments
 456            else None
 457        )
 458
 459        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 460            return sql
 461
 462        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 463        comments_sql = sep.join(
 464            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 465        )
 466
 467        if not comments_sql:
 468            return sql
 469
 470        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 471            return (
 472                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 473                if sql[0].isspace()
 474                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 475            )
 476
 477        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 478
 479    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 480        this_sql = self.indent(
 481            self.sql(expression)
 482            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 483            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 484            level=1,
 485            pad=0,
 486        )
 487        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 488
 489    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 490        original = self.identify
 491        self.identify = False
 492        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 493        self.identify = original
 494        return result
 495
 496    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 497        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 498            return name.upper()
 499        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 500            return name.lower()
 501        return name
 502
 503    def indent(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        level: int = 0,
 507        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 508        skip_first: bool = False,
 509        skip_last: bool = False,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        if not self.pretty:
 512            return sql
 513
 514        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 515        lines = sql.split("\n")
 516
 517        return "\n".join(
 518            line
 519            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 520            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 521            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 522        )
 523
 524    def sql(
 525        self,
 526        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 527        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 528        comment: bool = True,
 529    ) -> str:
 530        if not expression:
 531            return ""
 532
 533        if isinstance(expression, str):
 534            return expression
 535
 536        if key:
 537            value = expression.args.get(key)
 538            if value:
 539                return self.sql(value)
 540            return ""
 541
 542        if self._cache is not None:
 543            expression_id = hash(expression)
 544
 545            if expression_id in self._cache:
 546                return self._cache[expression_id]
 547
 548        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 549
 550        if callable(transform):
 551            sql = transform(self, expression)
 552        elif transform:
 553            sql = transform
 554        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 555            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 556
 557            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 558                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 559            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 560                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 561            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 562                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 563            else:
 564                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 565        else:
 566            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 567
 568        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 569
 570        if self._cache is not None:
 571            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 572        return sql
 573
 574    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 577        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 578
 579    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 580        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 581        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 582        options = expression.args.get("options")
 583        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 584        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 585        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 586        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 588
 589    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 590        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 591            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 592        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 593        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 594
 595    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 596        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 597
 598        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 599            join_mark = ""
 600            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 601
 602        column = ".".join(
 603            self.sql(part)
 604            for part in (
 605                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 606                expression.args.get("db"),
 607                expression.args.get("table"),
 608                expression.args.get("this"),
 609            )
 610            if part
 611        )
 612
 613        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 614
 615    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 617        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 618        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 619        return f"{position}{this}"
 620
 621    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 622        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 624        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 625        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 626        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 627        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 628        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 629        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 630
 631        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 632
 633    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 636        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 637
 638    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 640        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 641            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 642        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 643            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 644        else:
 645            persisted = ""
 646        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 647
 648    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 649        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 650
 651    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 652        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 653            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 654        else:
 655            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656
 657        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 658
 659    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 660        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 661    ) -> str:
 662        this = ""
 663        if expression.this is not None:
 664            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 665            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 666
 667        start = expression.args.get("start")
 668        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 669        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 670        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 671        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 672        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 673        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 674        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 675        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 676        cycle_sql = ""
 677
 678        if cycle is not None:
 679            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 680            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 681
 682        sequence_opts = ""
 683        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 684            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 685            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 686
 687        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 688        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 689
 690        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 691
 692    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 694
 695    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 697        if desc is not None:
 698            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 699        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 700
 701    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 704        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 705
 706    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 707        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 708
 709    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 711        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 712        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 713
 714        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 715
 716        properties_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 718            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 719        ):
 720            properties_sql = self.sql(
 721                exp.Properties(
 722                    expressions=[
 723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 725                    ]
 726                )
 727            )
 728
 729        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 731        if expression_sql:
 732            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 733
 734            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 735                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 736                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                        exp.Properties(
 738                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 739                        ),
 740                        wrapped=False,
 741                    )
 742                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 743                else:
 744                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 745
 746        postindex_props_sql = ""
 747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 748            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 750                wrapped=False,
 751                prefix=" ",
 752            )
 753
 754        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 755        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 756        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 757
 758        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 759        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 760
 761        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 762        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 763            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 764                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 765                sep=" ",
 766                prefix=" ",
 767                wrapped=False,
 768            )
 769
 770        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 771
 772        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 773        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 774            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 775                exp.Properties(
 776                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 777                ),
 778                sep=" ",
 779                prefix=" ",
 780                wrapped=False,
 781            )
 782
 783        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 784        no_schema_binding = (
 785            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 786        )
 787
 788        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 789        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 790
 791        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 793
 794    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 797
 798        if when:
 799            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 800            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 801            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 802
 803        return f"CLONE {this}"
 804
 805    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 806        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 807
 808    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 809        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 810        if with_:
 811            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 812        return sql
 813
 814    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 815        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 816        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 817
 818        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 819
 820    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 821        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 822        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 823
 824    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 825        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 827        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 828        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 829
 830    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        if self.BIT_START:
 833            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 834        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 835
 836    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        if self.HEX_START:
 839            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 840        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 841
 842    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if self.BYTE_START:
 845            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 846        return this
 847
 848    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 849        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 850        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 851
 852    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 855        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 856        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 857
 858    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 859        type_value = expression.this
 860
 861        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 862            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 863        else:
 864            type_sql = (
 865                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 866                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 867                else type_value
 868            )
 869
 870        nested = ""
 871        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 872        values = ""
 873
 874        if interior:
 875            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 876                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 877                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 878                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 879                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 880                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 881            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 882                nested = f" {interior}"
 883            else:
 884                nested = f"({interior})"
 885
 886        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 887        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 888            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 890        ):
 891            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 892
 893        return type_sql
 894
 895    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 896        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 897        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 898        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 899        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 900
 901    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 904        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 905        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 906        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 907        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 908        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 909        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 910        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 911        if self.RETURNING_END:
 912            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 913        else:
 914            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 915        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 916
 917    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 920        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 921        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 923        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 924        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 925        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 926        return (
 927            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 928        )
 929
 930    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 931        return self.prepend_ctes(
 932            expression,
 933            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 934        )
 935
 936    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 937        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 938
 939    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 940        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 941        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 942        count = expression.args.get("count")
 943        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 944        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 945            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 946        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 947        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 948
 949    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 951        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 952        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 953
 954    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 955        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 956            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 957            return ""
 958
 959        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 960
 961    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 962        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 963        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 964        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 965        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 967        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 968        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 969        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 970        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 971        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 972        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 973        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 974        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 975        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 976        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 977
 978    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 979        text = expression.name
 980        lower = text.lower()
 981        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 982        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 983        if (
 984            expression.quoted
 985            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 986            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 987            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 988        ):
 989            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 990        return text
 991
 992    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 993        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 994        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 995        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 996        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 997        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 998
 999    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1000        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1001        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1002
1003    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1004        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1005
1006    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1007        root_properties = []
1008        with_properties = []
1009
1010        for p in expression.expressions:
1011            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1012            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1013                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1015                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1016
1017        return self.root_properties(
1018            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1019        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1020
1021    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1022        if properties.expressions:
1023            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        return ""
1025
1026    def properties(
1027        self,
1028        properties: exp.Properties,
1029        prefix: str = "",
1030        sep: str = ", ",
1031        suffix: str = "",
1032        wrapped: bool = True,
1033    ) -> str:
1034        if properties.expressions:
1035            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1036            if expressions:
1037                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1038                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1039        return ""
1040
1041    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1042        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1043
1044    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1045        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1046        for p in properties.expressions:
1047            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1048            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1049                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1050            else:
1051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1052
1053        return properties_locs
1054
1055    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1056        property_cls = expression.__class__
1057        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1058            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1059
1060        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1061        if not property_name:
1062            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1063
1064        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1065
1066    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1068        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1069        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1070
1071    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1073        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1074        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1075
1076    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1078        local = expression.args.get("local")
1079        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1080        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1081        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1082        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1083        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1084
1085    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1089
1090    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091        if expression.args.get("default"):
1092            property = "DEFAULT"
1093        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1094            property = "ON"
1095        else:
1096            property = "OFF"
1097        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1098
1099    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100        if expression.args.get("no"):
1101            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1102        if expression.args.get("default"):
1103            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1104
1105        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1106        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1107
1108    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1111        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1112        if default or minimum or maximum:
1113            if default:
1114                prop = "DEFAULT"
1115            elif minimum:
1116                prop = "MINIMUM"
1117            else:
1118                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1119            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1120        units = expression.args.get("units")
1121        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1122        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1123
1124    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1126        always = expression.args.get("always")
1127        default = expression.args.get("default")
1128        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1129        never = expression.args.get("never")
1130
1131        if autotemp is not None:
1132            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1133        elif always:
1134            prop = "ALWAYS"
1135        elif default:
1136            prop = "DEFAULT"
1137        elif manual:
1138            prop = "MANUAL"
1139        elif never:
1140            prop = "NEVER"
1141        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1142
1143    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144        no = expression.args.get("no")
1145        no = " NO" if no else ""
1146        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1147        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1148
1149        for_ = ""
1150        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1151            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1152        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1153            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1154        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1155            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1156        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1157
1158    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1160        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1161        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1162        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1163        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1164        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1165
1166    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1168        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1169        statistics_sql = ""
1170        if statistics is not None:
1171            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1172        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1173
1174    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1175        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1176
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1178            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1179        else:
1180            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1181
1182        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1183        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1184        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1185
1186        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1187
1188        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1189        partition_sql = (
1190            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1191        )
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1194        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1195        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1196        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1197
1198        if self.RETURNING_END:
1199            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1200        else:
1201            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1202
1203        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1204        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1205
1206    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(
1208            expression,
1209            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1210        )
1211
1212    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1213        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1214
1215    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1216        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1217
1218    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1219        return expression.name.upper()
1220
1221    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1222        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1223        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1224        if constraint:
1225            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1226        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1227        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1228        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1229        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1230        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1231        if expressions:
1232            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1233        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1234
1235    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1236        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1237
1238    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1239        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1240        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1241        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1242        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1243        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1244        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1245        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1246        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1247        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1248        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1249        null = expression.args.get("null")
1250        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1251        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1252
1253    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1254        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1255
1256    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1257        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1258        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1259        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1260        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1261
1262    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1263        table = ".".join(
1264            part
1265            for part in [
1266                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1267                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1269            ]
1270            if part
1271        )
1272
1273        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1274        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1275        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1276        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1277        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1278        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1279        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1280        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1281        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1282        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1283
1284        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1285
1286    def tablesample_sql(
1287        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1288    ) -> str:
1289        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1290            table = expression.this.copy()
1291            table.set("alias", None)
1292            this = self.sql(table)
1293            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1294        else:
1295            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1296            alias = ""
1297        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1298        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1299        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1300        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1301        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1302        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1303        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1304        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1305        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1306        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1307        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1308        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1309        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1310            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1311        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1312        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1313        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1314        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1315
1316    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1317        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1318
1319        if expression.this:
1320            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1322            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1323            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1324            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1325            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1326
1327        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1328        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1329        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1330        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1331        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1332        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1333        if include_nulls is not None:
1334            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1335        else:
1336            nulls = ""
1337        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1338
1339    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1340        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1341
1342    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1345        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1346        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1347        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1348        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1349        if self.RETURNING_END:
1350            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1351        else:
1352            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1353        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1355
1356    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1357        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1358        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1359            args = self.expressions(expression)
1360            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1361            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1362            values = (
1363                f"({values})"
1364                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1365                else values
1366            )
1367            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1368
1369        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1370        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1371        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1372        # very slow.
1373        expression = expression.copy()
1374        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1375
1376        selects = []
1377
1378        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1379            row = tup.expressions
1380
1381            if i == 0 and column_names:
1382                row = [
1383                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1384                ]
1385
1386            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1387
1388        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1389        if len(selects) > 1:
1390            for select in selects[1:]:
1391                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1392                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1393                )
1394
1395        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1396
1397    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1398        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1399
1400    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1401        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1402        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1403        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1404
1405    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1406        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1407
1408    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1409        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1410
1411        if expression.args.get("all"):
1412            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1413
1414        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1415        grouping_sets = (
1416            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1417        )
1418
1419        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1420        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1421            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1422        else:
1423            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1424            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1425
1426        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1427        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1428            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1429        else:
1430            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1431            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1432
1433        groupings = csv(
1434            grouping_sets,
1435            cube_sql,
1436            rollup_sql,
1437            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1438            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1439        )
1440
1441        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1442            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1443
1444        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1445
1446    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1447        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1448        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1449
1450    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1451        op_sql = " ".join(
1452            op
1453            for op in (
1454                expression.method,
1455                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1456                expression.side,
1457                expression.kind,
1458                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1459            )
1460            if op
1461        )
1462        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1463        using = expression.args.get("using")
1464
1465        if not on_sql and using:
1466            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1467
1468        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        if on_sql:
1471            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1472            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1473            if using:
1474                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1475            else:
1476                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1477        elif not op_sql:
1478            return f", {this_sql}"
1479
1480        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1481        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1482
1483    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1484        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1485        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1486        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1487
1488    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490
1491        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1492            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1493
1494        if expression.args.get("view"):
1495            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1496            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1497            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1498            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1499            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1500            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1501
1502        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1503        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1504        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1505
1506    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        args = ", ".join(
1509            sql
1510            for sql in (
1511                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1512                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1513            )
1514            if sql
1515        )
1516        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1517
1518    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1520        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1521
1522    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1523        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1524        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1526        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1527        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1528        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1529        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1530        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1531
1532    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1533        expressions = (
1534            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1535        )
1536        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1537        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1538
1539    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1540        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1541
1542    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1543        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1544            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1545            return ""
1546
1547        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1548        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1549        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1550        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1551
1552        if wait is not None:
1553            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1554                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1555            else:
1556                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1557
1558        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1559
1560    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1561        text = expression.this or ""
1562        if expression.is_string:
1563            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1564        return text
1565
1566    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1567        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1568        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1569            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1570        elif self.pretty:
1571            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1572        return text
1573
1574    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1575        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1576        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1577        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1578        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1580        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1581        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1582        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1583        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1584        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1585        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1586
1587    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1588        return "NULL"
1589
1590    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1591        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1592
1593    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1595        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1596        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1597
1598    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1599        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1600
1601    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1602        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1603
1604    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1605        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1606
1607    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1608        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1609        asc = not desc
1610
1611        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1612        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1613        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1614        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1615        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1616
1617        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1618        nulls_sort_change = ""
1619        if nulls_first and (
1620            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1621        ):
1622            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1623        elif (
1624            nulls_last
1625            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1626            and not nulls_are_last
1627        ):
1628            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1629
1630        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1631            self.unsupported(
1632                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1633            )
1634            nulls_sort_change = ""
1635
1636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1637
1638    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1639        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1640        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1641        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1642        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1643        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1644        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1645        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1646        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1647        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1649        definition_sqls = [
1650            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1651            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1652        ]
1653        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1654        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1655        body = "".join(
1656            (
1657                partition,
1658                order,
1659                measures,
1660                rows,
1661                after,
1662                pattern,
1663                define,
1664            )
1665        )
1666        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1667        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1668        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1669
1670    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1671        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1672
1673        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1674        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1675
1676        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1677            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1678        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1679            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1680
1681        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1682
1683        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1684            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1685            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1686            else []
1687        )
1688
1689        return csv(
1690            *sqls,
1691            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1692            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1693            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1694            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1695            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1696            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1697            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1698            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1699            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1700            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1701            sep="",
1702        )
1703
1704    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1705        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1706    ) -> t.List[str]:
1707        return [
1708            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1709            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1710        ]
1711
1712    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1713        return [
1714            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1715            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1716            if expression.args.get("windows")
1717            else "",
1718            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1719            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1721        ]
1722
1723    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1724        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1725        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1726        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1727
1728    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1729        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1730        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1731        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1733        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1734        top = (
1735            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1736            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1737            else ""
1738        )
1739
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1741
1742        if kind:
1743            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1744                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1745            else:
1746                if kind == "STRUCT":
1747                    expressions = self.expressions(
1748                        sqls=[
1749                            self.sql(
1750                                exp.Struct(
1751                                    expressions=[
1752                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1753                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1754                                        )
1755                                        for e in expression.expressions
1756                                    ]
1757                                )
1758                            )
1759                        ]
1760                    )
1761                kind = ""
1762
1763        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1764        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1765            expression,
1766            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1767            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1768            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1769        )
1770        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1771
1772    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1775        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1776        return f"{this}{sql}"
1777
1778    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1779        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1780
1781    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1782        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1783        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1784        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1785        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1786        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1787
1788    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1791        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1792
1793    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795        kind = expression.text("kind")
1796        if kind:
1797            kind = f"{kind}."
1798        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1799
1800    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1801        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1802
1803    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1806
1807        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1808        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1809
1810        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1811        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1812
1813    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1814        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1815        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1816
1817    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1818        return self.prepend_ctes(
1819            expression,
1820            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1821        )
1822
1823    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1824        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1825        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1826        return f"UNION{kind}"
1827
1828    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1829        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1830        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1831        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1832            columns = alias.columns
1833            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1834        else:
1835            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1836        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1837        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1838        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1839        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1840        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1841
1842    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1843        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1844        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1845
1846    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1849        order = expression.args.get("order")
1850        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1851        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1852        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1853        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1854
1855        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1856
1857        first = expression.args.get("first")
1858        if first is None:
1859            first = ""
1860        else:
1861            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1862
1863        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1864            return f"{this} {alias}"
1865
1866        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1867        return f"{this} ({args})"
1868
1869    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1870        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1871        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1872
1873    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1875        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1876        end = (
1877            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1878            or "CURRENT ROW"
1879        )
1880        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1881
1882    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1885        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1886
1887    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1890        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1891        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1892
1893    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1894        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1895        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1896
1897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1898
1899    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1900        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1901
1902    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1903        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1904
1905    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1907        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1908            this = self.wrap(this)
1909        return f"ANY {this}"
1910
1911    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1912        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1913
1914    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1917
1918        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1919            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1920            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1921
1922        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1923
1924        if default:
1925            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1926
1927        statements.append("END")
1928
1929        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1930            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1931
1932        return " ".join(statements)
1933
1934    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1936        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1937        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1938
1939    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1940        order = expression.args.get("order")
1941        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1942        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1943
1944    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1945        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1947        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1948
1949    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1950        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1951
1952        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1953            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1954        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1955            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1956        else:
1957            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1958
1959    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1960        expressions = expression.expressions
1961        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1962            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1963        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1964
1965    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1967        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1968
1969    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1970        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1971        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1972        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1973        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1974        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1975        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1976        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1977        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1978
1979    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1982        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1983        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1984
1985    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1986        expression = expression.copy()
1987        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1988
1989    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1990        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1991        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1992        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1993
1994    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1996
1997    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1998        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1999        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2000        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2001        if unique_keys is not None:
2002            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2003        else:
2004            unique_keys = ""
2005        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2006        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2007        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2008        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2009        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2010        return self.func(
2011            "JSON_OBJECT",
2012            *expression.expressions,
2013            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2014        )
2015
2016    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2019        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2020        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2021        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2022        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2023
2024    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2027        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2028        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2029        with_ = (
2030            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2031            if expressions
2032            else ""
2033        )
2034        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2035
2036    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2037        query = expression.args.get("query")
2038        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2039        field = expression.args.get("field")
2040        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2041
2042        if query:
2043            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2044        elif unnest:
2045            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2046        elif field:
2047            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2048        else:
2049            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2050
2051        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2052
2053    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2054        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2055
2056    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2057        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2058        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2059            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2060        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2061
2062        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2063            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2064            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2065
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        if this:
2068            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2069            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2070
2071        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2072
2073    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2074        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2075
2076    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2079        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2080        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2081        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2082        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2083
2084    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2085        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2086
2087    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2088        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2089            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2090        else:
2091            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2092            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2093
2094        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2095
2096    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2097        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2098        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2100        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2101
2102    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2103        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2104
2105    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2106        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2107        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2108        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2109
2110    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2111        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2112
2113    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2116        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2117
2118    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2120
2121    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2122        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2123
2124    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2125        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2126
2127    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2128        if not self.pretty:
2129            return self.binary(expression, op)
2130
2131        sqls = tuple(
2132            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2133            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2134        )
2135
2136        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2137        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2138
2139    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2141
2142    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2144
2145    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2146        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2147
2148    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2150
2151    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2153
2154    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2156
2157    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2158        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2159        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2160        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2161
2162    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2163        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2165
2166    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2168
2169    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2170        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2171
2172    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2175        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2176        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2177        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2178
2179    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2182        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2183        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2184        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2185        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2186        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2187        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2188        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2189
2190    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2191        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2192        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2193        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2194        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2195
2196        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2197            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2198
2199        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2200
2201    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2202        return "BEGIN"
2203
2204    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2205        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2206        if chain is not None:
2207            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2208
2209        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2210
2211    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2212        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2213        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2214        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2215
2216    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218
2219        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2220        if dtype:
2221            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2222            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2223            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2224            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2226
2227        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2228        if default:
2229            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2230
2231        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2232            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2233
2234        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2235
2236    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2237        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2238            # Remove db from tables
2239            expression = expression.transform(
2240                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2241            )
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2244
2245    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2246        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2247
2248        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2249            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2250        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2252        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2253            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2254        else:
2255            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2256
2257        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2258        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2259
2260    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2261        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2262        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2263        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2264
2265    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2268        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2269
2270        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2271        if enforced is not None:
2272            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2273
2274        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2275
2276    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2277        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2278        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2279
2280        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2281        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2282        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2283
2284    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2285        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2286
2287    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2288        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2289
2290    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2291        return self.sql(
2292            exp.Cast(
2293                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2294                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2295            )
2296        )
2297
2298    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2299        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2300
2301    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2302        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2303            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2304        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2305
2306    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2308
2309    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2311
2312    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2314
2315    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2316        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2317
2318    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2320
2321    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2323
2324    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2326
2327    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2329
2330    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2332
2333    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2335
2336    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2338
2339    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2340        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2341            return self.sql(
2342                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2343            )
2344        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2345
2346    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2348
2349    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2351
2352    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2354
2355    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2356        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2357
2358    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2360
2361    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2363
2364    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2366
2367    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2369
2370    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2371        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2372
2373    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2374        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2375
2376    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2377        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2378
2379    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2381
2382    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2384
2385    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2386        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2387
2388    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2389        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2390        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2393        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2394
2395    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2396        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2397        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2398
2399    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2400        args = []
2401
2402        for key in expression.arg_types:
2403            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2404
2405            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2406                for value in arg_value:
2407                    args.append(value)
2408            elif arg_value is not None:
2409                args.append(arg_value)
2410
2411        if self.normalize_functions:
2412            name = expression.sql_name()
2413        else:
2414            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2415
2416        return self.func(name, *args)
2417
2418    def func(
2419        self,
2420        name: str,
2421        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2422        prefix: str = "(",
2423        suffix: str = ")",
2424    ) -> str:
2425        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2426
2427    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2428        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2429        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2430            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2431        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2432
2433    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2434        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2435
2436    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2437        return format_time(
2438            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2439        )
2440
2441    def expressions(
2442        self,
2443        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2444        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2445        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2446        flat: bool = False,
2447        indent: bool = True,
2448        skip_first: bool = False,
2449        sep: str = ", ",
2450        prefix: str = "",
2451    ) -> str:
2452        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2453
2454        if not expressions:
2455            return ""
2456
2457        if flat:
2458            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2459
2460        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2461
2462        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2463        pad = " " * self.pad
2464        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2465
2466        result_sqls = []
2467        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2468            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2469            if not sql:
2470                continue
2471
2472            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2473
2474            if self.pretty:
2475                if self.leading_comma:
2476                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2477                else:
2478                    result_sqls.append(
2479                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2480                    )
2481            else:
2482                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2483
2484        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2485        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2486
2487    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2488        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2489        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2490        if flat:
2491            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2492        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2493
2494    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2495        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2496        if not property_name:
2497            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2498        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2499
2500    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        op = self.seg(op)
2503        return self.query_modifiers(
2504            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2505        )
2506
2507    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2508        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2509
2510    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2511        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2512
2513    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2516        expressions = (
2517            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2518        )
2519        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2520
2521    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2523        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2524        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2525
2526    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2527        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2528
2529    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2530        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2531        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2532        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2533        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2534
2535        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2536        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2537            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2538            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2539                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2540        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2541            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2542                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2543            else:
2544                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2545        else:
2546            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2547        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2548
2549    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2550        table = expression.this
2551        table_alias = ""
2552
2553        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2554        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2555            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2556            table = table.copy()
2557            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2558
2559        this = self.sql(table)
2560        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2561        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2563
2564        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2565
2566    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2567        if expression.args.get("format"):
2568            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2569
2570        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2571
2572    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2575        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2576        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2577        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2578
2579    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2582        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2583        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2584
2585    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2586        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2587
2588    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2589        return ""
2590
2591    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2593        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2594        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2595        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2596        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2597
2598    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2601
2602        if having:
2603            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2604
2605        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2606
2607    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2608        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2609        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2610        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2611        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2612        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2613        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2614        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2615        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2616        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2617        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2618        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2619        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2620        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2621
2622    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2623        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2624        if key_block_size:
2625            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2626
2627        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2628        if using:
2629            return f"USING {using}"
2630
2631        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2632        if parser:
2633            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2634
2635        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2636        if comment:
2637            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2638
2639        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2640        if visible is not None:
2641            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2642
2643        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2644        if engine_attr:
2645            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2646
2647        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2648        if secondary_engine_attr:
2649            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2650
2651        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2652        return ""
2653
2654    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2656        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2659        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2660        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2661        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2662        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2663        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2664        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2665        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2666
2667    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2668        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2669            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2670
2671        case = exp.Case().when(
2672            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2673            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2674            copy=False,
2675        )
2676        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2677        if else_cond:
2678            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2679
2680        return self.sql(case)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
356    def __init__(
357        self,
358        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
359        identify: str | bool = False,
360        normalize: bool = False,
361        pad: int = 2,
362        indent: int = 2,
363        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
364        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
365        max_unsupported: int = 3,
366        leading_comma: bool = False,
367        max_text_width: int = 80,
368        comments: bool = True,
369    ):
370        import sqlglot
371
372        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
373        self.identify = identify
374        self.normalize = normalize
375        self.pad = pad
376        self._indent = indent
377        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
378        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
379        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
380        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
381        self.comments = comments
382
383        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
384        self.normalize_functions = (
385            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
386        )
387
388        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
389        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
390        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
391            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
392        )
393        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
395    def generate(
396        self,
397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
398        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
399    ) -> str:
400        """
401        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
402
403        Args:
404            expression: The syntax tree.
405            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
406                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
407
408        Returns:
409            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
410        """
411        if cache is not None:
412            self._cache = cache
413
414        self.unsupported_messages = []
415        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
416        self._cache = None
417
418        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
419            return sql
420
421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
422            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
423                logger.warning(msg)
424        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
425            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
426
427        if self.pretty:
428            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
429        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
431    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
432        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
433            raise UnsupportedError(message)
434        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
436    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
437        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
439    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
440        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
442    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
443        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
444        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
445        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
447    def maybe_comment(
448        self,
449        sql: str,
450        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
451        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
452    ) -> str:
453        comments = (
454            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
455            if self.comments
456            else None
457        )
458
459        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
460            return sql
461
462        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
463        comments_sql = sep.join(
464            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
465        )
466
467        if not comments_sql:
468            return sql
469
470        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
471            return (
472                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
473                if sql[0].isspace()
474                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
475            )
476
477        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
479    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
480        this_sql = self.indent(
481            self.sql(expression)
482            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
483            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
484            level=1,
485            pad=0,
486        )
487        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
489    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
490        original = self.identify
491        self.identify = False
492        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
493        self.identify = original
494        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
496    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
497        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
498            return name.upper()
499        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
500            return name.lower()
501        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
503    def indent(
504        self,
505        sql: str,
506        level: int = 0,
507        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
508        skip_first: bool = False,
509        skip_last: bool = False,
510    ) -> str:
511        if not self.pretty:
512            return sql
513
514        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
515        lines = sql.split("\n")
516
517        return "\n".join(
518            line
519            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
520            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
521            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
522        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
524    def sql(
525        self,
526        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
527        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
528        comment: bool = True,
529    ) -> str:
530        if not expression:
531            return ""
532
533        if isinstance(expression, str):
534            return expression
535
536        if key:
537            value = expression.args.get(key)
538            if value:
539                return self.sql(value)
540            return ""
541
542        if self._cache is not None:
543            expression_id = hash(expression)
544
545            if expression_id in self._cache:
546                return self._cache[expression_id]
547
548        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
549
550        if callable(transform):
551            sql = transform(self, expression)
552        elif transform:
553            sql = transform
554        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
555            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
556
557            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
558                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
559            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
560                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
561            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
562                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
563            else:
564                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
565        else:
566            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
567
568        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
569
570        if self._cache is not None:
571            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
572        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
574    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
576        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
577        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
579    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
580        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
581        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
582        options = expression.args.get("options")
583        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
584        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
585        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
586        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
589    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
590        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
591            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
592        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
593        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
595    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
596        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
597
598        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
599            join_mark = ""
600            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
601
602        column = ".".join(
603            self.sql(part)
604            for part in (
605                expression.args.get("catalog"),
606                expression.args.get("db"),
607                expression.args.get("table"),
608                expression.args.get("this"),
609            )
610            if part
611        )
612
613        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
615    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
617        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
618        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
619        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
621    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
622        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
624        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
625        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
626        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
627        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
628        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
629        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
630
631        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
633    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
635        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
636        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
638    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
640        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
641            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
642        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
643            persisted = " PERSISTED"
644        else:
645            persisted = ""
646        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
648    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
649        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
651    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
652        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
653            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
654        else:
655            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
656
657        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
659    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
660        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
661    ) -> str:
662        this = ""
663        if expression.this is not None:
664            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
665            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
666
667        start = expression.args.get("start")
668        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
669        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
670        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
671        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
672        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
673        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
674        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
675        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
676        cycle_sql = ""
677
678        if cycle is not None:
679            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
680            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
681
682        sequence_opts = ""
683        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
684            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
685            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
686
687        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
688        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
689
690        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
692    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
693        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
695    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
696        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
697        if desc is not None:
698            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
699        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
701    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
703        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
704        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
706    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
707        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
709    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
711        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
712        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
713
714        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
715
716        properties_sql = ""
717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
718            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
719        ):
720            properties_sql = self.sql(
721                exp.Properties(
722                    expressions=[
723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
725                    ]
726                )
727            )
728
729        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
731        if expression_sql:
732            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
733
734            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
735                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
736                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
737                        exp.Properties(
738                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
739                        ),
740                        wrapped=False,
741                    )
742                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
743                else:
744                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
745
746        postindex_props_sql = ""
747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
748            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
750                wrapped=False,
751                prefix=" ",
752            )
753
754        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
755        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
756        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
757
758        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
759        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
760
761        postcreate_props_sql = ""
762        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
763            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
764                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
765                sep=" ",
766                prefix=" ",
767                wrapped=False,
768            )
769
770        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
771
772        postexpression_props_sql = ""
773        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
774            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
775                exp.Properties(
776                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
777                ),
778                sep=" ",
779                prefix=" ",
780                wrapped=False,
781            )
782
783        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
784        no_schema_binding = (
785            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
786        )
787
788        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
789        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
790
791        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
794    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
797
798        if when:
799            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
800            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
801            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
802
803        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
805    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
806        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
808    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
809        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
810        if with_:
811            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
812        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
814    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
815        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
816        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
817
818        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
820    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
821        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
822        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
824    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
825        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
827        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
828        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
830    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
832        if self.BIT_START:
833            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
834        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
836    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
838        if self.HEX_START:
839            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
840        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
842    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
844        if self.BYTE_START:
845            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
846        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
848    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
849        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
850        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
852    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
854        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
855        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
856        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
858    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
859        type_value = expression.this
860
861        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
862            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
863        else:
864            type_sql = (
865                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
866                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
867                else type_value
868            )
869
870        nested = ""
871        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
872        values = ""
873
874        if interior:
875            if expression.args.get("nested"):
876                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
877                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
878                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
879                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
880                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
881            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
882                nested = f" {interior}"
883            else:
884                nested = f"({interior})"
885
886        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
887        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
888            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
889            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
890        ):
891            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
892
893        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
895    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
896        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
897        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
898        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
899        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
901    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
903        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
904        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
905        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
906        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
907        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
908        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
909        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
910        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
911        if self.RETURNING_END:
912            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
913        else:
914            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
915        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
917    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
920        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
921        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
923        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
924        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
925        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
926        return (
927            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
928        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
930    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
931        return self.prepend_ctes(
932            expression,
933            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
934        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
936    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
937        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
939    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
940        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
941        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
942        count = expression.args.get("count")
943        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
944        if expression.args.get("percent"):
945            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
946        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
947        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
949    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
951        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
952        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
954    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
955        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
956            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
957            return ""
958
959        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
961    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
962        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
963        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
964        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
965        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
966        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
967        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
968        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
969        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
970        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
971        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
972        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
973        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
974        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
975        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
976        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
978    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
979        text = expression.name
980        lower = text.lower()
981        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
982        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
983        if (
984            expression.quoted
985            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
986            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
987            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
988        ):
989            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
990        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
992    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
993        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
994        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
995        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
996        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
997        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
 999    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1000        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1001        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1003    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1004        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1006    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1007        root_properties = []
1008        with_properties = []
1009
1010        for p in expression.expressions:
1011            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1012            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1013                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1015                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1016
1017        return self.root_properties(
1018            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1019        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1021    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1022        if properties.expressions:
1023            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1026    def properties(
1027        self,
1028        properties: exp.Properties,
1029        prefix: str = "",
1030        sep: str = ", ",
1031        suffix: str = "",
1032        wrapped: bool = True,
1033    ) -> str:
1034        if properties.expressions:
1035            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1036            if expressions:
1037                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1038                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1039        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1041    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1042        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1044    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1045        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1046        for p in properties.expressions:
1047            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1048            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1049                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1050            else:
1051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1052
1053        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1055    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1056        property_cls = expression.__class__
1057        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1058            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1059
1060        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1061        if not property_name:
1062            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1063
1064        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1066    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1067        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1068        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1069        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1071    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1072        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1073        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1074        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1076    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1077        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1078        local = expression.args.get("local")
1079        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1080        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1081        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1082        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1083        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1085    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1086        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1090    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1091        if expression.args.get("default"):
1092            property = "DEFAULT"
1093        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1094            property = "ON"
1095        else:
1096            property = "OFF"
1097        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1099    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1100        if expression.args.get("no"):
1101            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1102        if expression.args.get("default"):
1103            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1104
1105        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1106        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1108    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1111        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1112        if default or minimum or maximum:
1113            if default:
1114                prop = "DEFAULT"
1115            elif minimum:
1116                prop = "MINIMUM"
1117            else:
1118                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1119            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1120        units = expression.args.get("units")
1121        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1122        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1124    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1125        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1126        always = expression.args.get("always")
1127        default = expression.args.get("default")
1128        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1129        never = expression.args.get("never")
1130
1131        if autotemp is not None:
1132            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1133        elif always:
1134            prop = "ALWAYS"
1135        elif default:
1136            prop = "DEFAULT"
1137        elif manual:
1138            prop = "MANUAL"
1139        elif never:
1140            prop = "NEVER"
1141        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1143    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1144        no = expression.args.get("no")
1145        no = " NO" if no else ""
1146        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1147        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1148
1149        for_ = ""
1150        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1151            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1152        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1153            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1154        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1155            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1156        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1158    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1159        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1160        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1161        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1162        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1163        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1164        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1166    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1167        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1168        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1169        statistics_sql = ""
1170        if statistics is not None:
1171            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1172        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1174    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1175        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1176
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1178            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1179        else:
1180            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1181
1182        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1183        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1184        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1185
1186        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1187
1188        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1189        partition_sql = (
1190            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1191        )
1192        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1193        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1194        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1195        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1196        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1197
1198        if self.RETURNING_END:
1199            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1200        else:
1201            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1202
1203        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1204        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1206    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(
1208            expression,
1209            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1210        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1212    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1213        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1215    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1216        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1218    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1219        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1221    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1222        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1223        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1224        if constraint:
1225            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1226        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1227        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1228        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1229        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1230        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1231        if expressions:
1232            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1233        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1235    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1236        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1238    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1239        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1240        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1241        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1242        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1243        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1244        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1245        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1246        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1247        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1248        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1249        null = expression.args.get("null")
1250        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1251        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1253    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1254        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1256    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1257        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1258        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1259        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1260        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1262    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1263        table = ".".join(
1264            part
1265            for part in [
1266                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1267                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1268                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1269            ]
1270            if part
1271        )
1272
1273        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1274        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1275        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1276        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1277        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1278        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1279        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1280        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1281        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1282        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1283
1284        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1286    def tablesample_sql(
1287        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1288    ) -> str:
1289        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1290            table = expression.this.copy()
1291            table.set("alias", None)
1292            this = self.sql(table)
1293            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1294        else:
1295            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1296            alias = ""
1297        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1298        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1299        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1300        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1301        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1302        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1303        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1304        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1305        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1306        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1307        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1308        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1309        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1310            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1311        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1312        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1313        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1314        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1316    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1317        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1318
1319        if expression.this:
1320            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1322            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1323            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1324            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1325            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1326
1327        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1328        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1329        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1330        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1331        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1332        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1333        if include_nulls is not None:
1334            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1335        else:
1336            nulls = ""
1337        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1339    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1340        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1342    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1345        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1346        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1347        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1348        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1349        if self.RETURNING_END:
1350            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1351        else:
1352            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1353        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1356    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1357        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1358        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1359            args = self.expressions(expression)
1360            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1361            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1362            values = (
1363                f"({values})"
1364                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1365                else values
1366            )
1367            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1368
1369        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1370        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1371        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1372        # very slow.
1373        expression = expression.copy()
1374        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1375
1376        selects = []
1377
1378        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1379            row = tup.expressions
1380
1381            if i == 0 and column_names:
1382                row = [
1383                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1384                ]
1385
1386            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1387
1388        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1389        if len(selects) > 1:
1390            for select in selects[1:]:
1391                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1392                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1393                )
1394
1395        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1397    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1398        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1400    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1401        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1402        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1403        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1405    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1406        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1408    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1409        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1410
1411        if expression.args.get("all"):
1412            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1413
1414        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1415        grouping_sets = (
1416            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1417        )
1418
1419        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1420        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1421            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1422        else:
1423            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1424            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1425
1426        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1427        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1428            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1429        else:
1430            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1431            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1432
1433        groupings = csv(
1434            grouping_sets,
1435            cube_sql,
1436            rollup_sql,
1437            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1438            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1439        )
1440
1441        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1442            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1443
1444        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1446    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1447        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1448        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1450    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1451        op_sql = " ".join(
1452            op
1453            for op in (
1454                expression.method,
1455                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1456                expression.side,
1457                expression.kind,
1458                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1459            )
1460            if op
1461        )
1462        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1463        using = expression.args.get("using")
1464
1465        if not on_sql and using:
1466            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1467
1468        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        if on_sql:
1471            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1472            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1473            if using:
1474                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1475            else:
1476                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1477        elif not op_sql:
1478            return f", {this_sql}"
1479
1480        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1481        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1483    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1484        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1485        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1486        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1488    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490
1491        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1492            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1493
1494        if expression.args.get("view"):
1495            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1496            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1497            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1498            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1499            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1500            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1501
1502        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1503        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1504        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1506    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        args = ", ".join(
1509            sql
1510            for sql in (
1511                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1512                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1513            )
1514            if sql
1515        )
1516        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1518    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1520        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1522    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1523        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1524        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1526        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1527        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1528        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1529        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1530        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1532    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1533        expressions = (
1534            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1535        )
1536        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1537        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1539    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1540        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1542    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1543        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1544            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1545            return ""
1546
1547        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1548        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1549        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1550        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1551
1552        if wait is not None:
1553            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1554                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1555            else:
1556                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1557
1558        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1560    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1561        text = expression.this or ""
1562        if expression.is_string:
1563            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1564        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1566    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1567        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1568        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1569            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1570        elif self.pretty:
1571            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1572        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1574    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1575        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1576        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1577        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1578        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1580        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1581        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1582        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1583        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1584        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1585        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1587    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1588        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1590    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1591        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1593    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1595        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1596        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1598    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1599        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1601    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1602        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1604    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1605        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1607    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1608        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1609        asc = not desc
1610
1611        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1612        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1613        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1614        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1615        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1616
1617        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1618        nulls_sort_change = ""
1619        if nulls_first and (
1620            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1621        ):
1622            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1623        elif (
1624            nulls_last
1625            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1626            and not nulls_are_last
1627        ):
1628            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1629
1630        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1631            self.unsupported(
1632                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1633            )
1634            nulls_sort_change = ""
1635
1636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1638    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1639        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1640        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1641        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1642        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1643        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1644        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1645        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1646        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1647        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1649        definition_sqls = [
1650            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1651            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1652        ]
1653        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1654        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1655        body = "".join(
1656            (
1657                partition,
1658                order,
1659                measures,
1660                rows,
1661                after,
1662                pattern,
1663                define,
1664            )
1665        )
1666        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1667        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1668        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1670    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1671        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1672
1673        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1674        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1675
1676        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1677            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1678        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1679            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1680
1681        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1682
1683        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1684            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1685            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1686            else []
1687        )
1688
1689        return csv(
1690            *sqls,
1691            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1692            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1693            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1694            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1695            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1696            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1697            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1698            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1699            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1700            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1701            sep="",
1702        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1704    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1705        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1706    ) -> t.List[str]:
1707        return [
1708            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1709            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1710        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1712    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1713        return [
1714            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1715            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1716            if expression.args.get("windows")
1717            else "",
1718            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1719            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1721        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1723    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1724        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1725        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1726        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1728    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1729        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1730        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1731        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1733        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1734        top = (
1735            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1736            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1737            else ""
1738        )
1739
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1741
1742        if kind:
1743            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1744                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1745            else:
1746                if kind == "STRUCT":
1747                    expressions = self.expressions(
1748                        sqls=[
1749                            self.sql(
1750                                exp.Struct(
1751                                    expressions=[
1752                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1753                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1754                                        )
1755                                        for e in expression.expressions
1756                                    ]
1757                                )
1758                            )
1759                        ]
1760                    )
1761                kind = ""
1762
1763        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1764        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1765            expression,
1766            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1767            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1768            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1769        )
1770        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1772    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1775        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1776        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1778    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1779        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1781    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1782        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1783        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1784        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1785        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1786        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1788    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1791        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1793    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795        kind = expression.text("kind")
1796        if kind:
1797            kind = f"{kind}."
1798        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1800    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1801        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1803    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1806
1807        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1808        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1809
1810        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1811        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1813    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1814        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1815        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1817    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1818        return self.prepend_ctes(
1819            expression,
1820            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1821        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1823    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1824        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1825        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1826        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1828    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1829        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1830        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1831        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1832            columns = alias.columns
1833            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1834        else:
1835            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1836        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1837        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1838        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1839        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1840        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1842    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1843        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1844        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1846    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1849        order = expression.args.get("order")
1850        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1851        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1852        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1853        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1854
1855        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1856
1857        first = expression.args.get("first")
1858        if first is None:
1859            first = ""
1860        else:
1861            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1862
1863        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1864            return f"{this} {alias}"
1865
1866        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1867        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1869    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1870        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1871        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1873    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1875        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1876        end = (
1877            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1878            or "CURRENT ROW"
1879        )
1880        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1882    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1885        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1887    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1890        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1891        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1893    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1894        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1895        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1896
1897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1899    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1900        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1902    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1903        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1905    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1907        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1908            this = self.wrap(this)
1909        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1911    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1912        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1914    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1917
1918        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1919            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1920            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1921
1922        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1923
1924        if default:
1925            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1926
1927        statements.append("END")
1928
1929        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1930            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1931
1932        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1934    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1936        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1937        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1939    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1940        order = expression.args.get("order")
1941        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1942        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1944    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1945        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1947        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1949    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1950        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1951
1952        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1953            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1954        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1955            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1956        else:
1957            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1959    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1960        expressions = expression.expressions
1961        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1962            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1963        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1965    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1967        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1969    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1970        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1971        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1972        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1973        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1974        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1975        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1976        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1977        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1979    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1982        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1983        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1985    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1986        expression = expression.copy()
1987        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1989    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1990        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1991        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1992        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1994    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1995        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1997    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1998        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1999        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2000        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2001        if unique_keys is not None:
2002            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2003        else:
2004            unique_keys = ""
2005        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2006        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2007        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2008        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2009        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2010        return self.func(
2011            "JSON_OBJECT",
2012            *expression.expressions,
2013            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2014        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2016    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2019        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2020        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2021        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2022        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2024    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2027        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2028        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2029        with_ = (
2030            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2031            if expressions
2032            else ""
2033        )
2034        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2036    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2037        query = expression.args.get("query")
2038        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2039        field = expression.args.get("field")
2040        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2041
2042        if query:
2043            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2044        elif unnest:
2045            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2046        elif field:
2047            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2048        else:
2049            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2050
2051        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2053    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2054        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2056    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2057        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2058        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2059            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2060        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2061
2062        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2063            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2064            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2065
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        if this:
2068            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2069            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2070
2071        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2073    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2074        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2076    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2079        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2080        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2081        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2082        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2084    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2085        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2087    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2088        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2089            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2090        else:
2091            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2092            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2093
2094        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2096    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2097        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2098        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2100        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2102    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2103        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2105    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2106        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2107        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2108        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2110    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2111        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2113    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2116        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2118    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2121    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2122        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2124    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2125        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2127    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2128        if not self.pretty:
2129            return self.binary(expression, op)
2130
2131        sqls = tuple(
2132            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2133            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2134        )
2135
2136        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2137        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2139    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2142    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2145    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2146        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2148    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2151    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2154    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2157    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2158        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2159        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2160        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2162    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2163        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2166    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2169    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2170        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2172    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2175        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2176        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2177        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2179    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2182        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2183        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2184        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2185        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2186        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2187        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2188        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2190    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2191        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2192        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2193        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2194        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2195
2196        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2197            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2198
2199        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2201    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2202        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2204    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2205        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2206        if chain is not None:
2207            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2208
2209        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2211    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2212        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2213        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2214        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2216    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218
2219        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2220        if dtype:
2221            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2222            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2223            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2224            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2226
2227        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2228        if default:
2229            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2230
2231        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2232            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2233
2234        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2236    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2237        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2238            # Remove db from tables
2239            expression = expression.transform(
2240                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2241            )
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2245    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2246        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2247
2248        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2249            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2250        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2252        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2253            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2254        else:
2255            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2256
2257        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2258        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2260    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2261        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2262        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2263        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2265    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2268        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2269
2270        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2271        if enforced is not None:
2272            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2273
2274        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2276    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2277        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2278        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2279
2280        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2281        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2282        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2284    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2285        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2287    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2288        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2290    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2291        return self.sql(
2292            exp.Cast(
2293                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2294                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2295            )
2296        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2298    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2299        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2301    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2302        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2303            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2304        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2306    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2309    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2312    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2315    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2316        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2318    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2321    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2324    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2327    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2330    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2333    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2336    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2339    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2340        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2341            return self.sql(
2342                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2343            )
2344        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2346    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2349    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2352    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2355    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2356        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2358    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2361    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2364    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2367    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2370    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2371        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2373    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2374        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2376    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2377        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2379    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2382    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2385    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2386        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2388    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2389        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2390        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2393        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2395    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2396        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2397        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2399    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2400        args = []
2401
2402        for key in expression.arg_types:
2403            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2404
2405            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2406                for value in arg_value:
2407                    args.append(value)
2408            elif arg_value is not None:
2409                args.append(arg_value)
2410
2411        if self.normalize_functions:
2412            name = expression.sql_name()
2413        else:
2414            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2415
2416        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2418    def func(
2419        self,
2420        name: str,
2421        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2422        prefix: str = "(",
2423        suffix: str = ")",
2424    ) -> str:
2425        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2427    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2428        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2429        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2430            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2431        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2433    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2434        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2436    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2437        return format_time(
2438            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2439        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2441    def expressions(
2442        self,
2443        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2444        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2445        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2446        flat: bool = False,
2447        indent: bool = True,
2448        skip_first: bool = False,
2449        sep: str = ", ",
2450        prefix: str = "",
2451    ) -> str:
2452        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2453
2454        if not expressions:
2455            return ""
2456
2457        if flat:
2458            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2459
2460        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2461
2462        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2463        pad = " " * self.pad
2464        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2465
2466        result_sqls = []
2467        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2468            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2469            if not sql:
2470                continue
2471
2472            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2473
2474            if self.pretty:
2475                if self.leading_comma:
2476                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2477                else:
2478                    result_sqls.append(
2479                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2480                    )
2481            else:
2482                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2483
2484        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2485        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2487    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2488        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2489        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2490        if flat:
2491            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2492        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2494    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2495        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2496        if not property_name:
2497            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2498        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2500    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        op = self.seg(op)
2503        return self.query_modifiers(
2504            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2505        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2507    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2508        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2510    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2511        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2513    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2516        expressions = (
2517            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2518        )
2519        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2521    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2523        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2524        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2526    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2527        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2529    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2530        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2531        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2532        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2533        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2534
2535        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2536        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2537            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2538            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2539                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2540        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2541            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2542                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2543            else:
2544                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2545        else:
2546            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2547        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2549    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2550        table = expression.this
2551        table_alias = ""
2552
2553        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2554        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2555            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2556            table = table.copy()
2557            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2558
2559        this = self.sql(table)
2560        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2561        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2563
2564        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2566    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2567        if expression.args.get("format"):
2568            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2569
2570        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2572    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2575        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2576        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2577        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2579    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2582        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2583        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2585    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2586        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2588    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2589        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2591    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2593        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2594        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2595        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2596        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2598    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2601
2602        if having:
2603            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2604
2605        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2607    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2608        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2609        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2610        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2611        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2612        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2613        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2614        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2615        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2616        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2617        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2618        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2619        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2620        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2622    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2623        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2624        if key_block_size:
2625            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2626
2627        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2628        if using:
2629            return f"USING {using}"
2630
2631        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2632        if parser:
2633            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2634
2635        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2636        if comment:
2637            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2638
2639        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2640        if visible is not None:
2641            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2642
2643        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2644        if engine_attr:
2645            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2646
2647        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2648        if secondary_engine_attr:
2649            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2650
2651        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2652        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2654    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2656        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2659        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2660        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2661        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2662        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2663        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2664        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2665        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2667    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2668        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2669            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2670
2671        case = exp.Case().when(
2672            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2673            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2674            copy=False,
2675        )
2676        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2677        if else_cond:
2678            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2679
2680        return self.sql(case)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2683def cached_generator(
2684    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2685) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2686    """Returns a cached generator."""
2687    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2688    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2689    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.