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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  15
  16
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether the base comes first
 105    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 108    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 111    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 112
 113    # Always do union distinct or union all
 114    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 115
 116    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 117    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 120    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 123    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 126    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 127
 128    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 129    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 132    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 135    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 136
 137    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 138    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 139
 140    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 141    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 142
 143    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 144    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 145
 146    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 147    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 148
 149    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 150    JOIN_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 153    TABLE_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 156    QUERY_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 159    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 160
 161    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 162    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 165    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 168    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 171    RETURNING_END = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 174    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 177    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 178
 179    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 180    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 181
 182    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 183    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 184
 185    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 186    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 187
 188    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 189    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 190    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 191    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 192
 193    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 194    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 195
 196    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 197    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 200    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 201
 202    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 203    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 206    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 209    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 212    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 215    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 218    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 219
 220    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 221    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 222
 223    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 224        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 225        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 226        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 227        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 228        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 229        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 230        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 231        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 232        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 233    }
 234
 235    STAR_MAPPING = {
 236        "except": "EXCEPT",
 237        "replace": "REPLACE",
 238    }
 239
 240    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 241        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 242        "seconds": "second",
 243        "minutes": "minute",
 244        "hours": "hour",
 245        "days": "day",
 246        "weeks": "week",
 247        "months": "month",
 248        "quarters": "quarter",
 249        "years": "year",
 250    }
 251
 252    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 253
 254    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 255
 256    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 257
 258    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 259        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 260        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 262        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 264        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 269        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 279        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 281        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 282        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 283        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 287        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 289        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 291        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 293        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 295        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 297        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 309        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 311        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 313        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 315        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 316        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317    }
 318
 319    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 320    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 321
 322    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 323    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 324        exp.Create,
 325        exp.Delete,
 326        exp.Drop,
 327        exp.From,
 328        exp.Insert,
 329        exp.Join,
 330        exp.Select,
 331        exp.Update,
 332        exp.Where,
 333        exp.With,
 334    )
 335
 336    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 337    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 338        exp.Column,
 339        exp.Literal,
 340        exp.Neg,
 341        exp.Paren,
 342    )
 343
 344    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 345
 346    # Autofilled
 347    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 348    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 349    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 350    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 351    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 352    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 353    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 354    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 355    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 356    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 357
 358    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 359
 360    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 361    QUOTE_START = "'"
 362    QUOTE_END = "'"
 363    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 364    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 365    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 366
 367    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 368    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 369    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 370    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 371    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 372    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 373    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 374
 375    __slots__ = (
 376        "pretty",
 377        "identify",
 378        "normalize",
 379        "pad",
 380        "_indent",
 381        "normalize_functions",
 382        "unsupported_level",
 383        "max_unsupported",
 384        "leading_comma",
 385        "max_text_width",
 386        "comments",
 387        "unsupported_messages",
 388        "_escaped_quote_end",
 389        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 390        "_cache",
 391    )
 392
 393    def __init__(
 394        self,
 395        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 396        identify: str | bool = False,
 397        normalize: bool = False,
 398        pad: int = 2,
 399        indent: int = 2,
 400        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 401        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 402        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 403        leading_comma: bool = False,
 404        max_text_width: int = 80,
 405        comments: bool = True,
 406    ):
 407        import sqlglot
 408
 409        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 410        self.identify = identify
 411        self.normalize = normalize
 412        self.pad = pad
 413        self._indent = indent
 414        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 415        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 416        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 417        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 418        self.comments = comments
 419
 420        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 421        self.normalize_functions = (
 422            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 423        )
 424
 425        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 426        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 427        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 428            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 429        )
 430        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 431
 432    def generate(
 433        self,
 434        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 435        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 436    ) -> str:
 437        """
 438        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 439
 440        Args:
 441            expression: The syntax tree.
 442            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 443                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 444
 445        Returns:
 446            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 447        """
 448        if cache is not None:
 449            self._cache = cache
 450
 451        self.unsupported_messages = []
 452        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 453        self._cache = None
 454
 455        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 456            return sql
 457
 458        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 459            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 460                logger.warning(msg)
 461        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 462            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 463
 464        if self.pretty:
 465            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 466        return sql
 467
 468    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 469        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 470            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 471        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 472
 473    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 474        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 475
 476    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 477        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 478
 479    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 480        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 481        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 482        return comment
 483
 484    def maybe_comment(
 485        self,
 486        sql: str,
 487        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 488        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 489    ) -> str:
 490        comments = (
 491            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 492            if self.comments
 493            else None
 494        )
 495
 496        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 497            return sql
 498
 499        comments_sql = " ".join(
 500            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 501        )
 502
 503        if not comments_sql:
 504            return sql
 505
 506        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 507            return (
 508                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 509                if sql[0].isspace()
 510                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 511            )
 512
 513        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 514
 515    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 516        this_sql = self.indent(
 517            self.sql(expression)
 518            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 519            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 520            level=1,
 521            pad=0,
 522        )
 523        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 524
 525    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 526        original = self.identify
 527        self.identify = False
 528        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 529        self.identify = original
 530        return result
 531
 532    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 533        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 534            return name.upper()
 535        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 536            return name.lower()
 537        return name
 538
 539    def indent(
 540        self,
 541        sql: str,
 542        level: int = 0,
 543        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 544        skip_first: bool = False,
 545        skip_last: bool = False,
 546    ) -> str:
 547        if not self.pretty:
 548            return sql
 549
 550        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 551        lines = sql.split("\n")
 552
 553        return "\n".join(
 554            line
 555            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 556            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 557            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 558        )
 559
 560    def sql(
 561        self,
 562        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 563        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 564        comment: bool = True,
 565    ) -> str:
 566        if not expression:
 567            return ""
 568
 569        if isinstance(expression, str):
 570            return expression
 571
 572        if key:
 573            value = expression.args.get(key)
 574            if value:
 575                return self.sql(value)
 576            return ""
 577
 578        if self._cache is not None:
 579            expression_id = hash(expression)
 580
 581            if expression_id in self._cache:
 582                return self._cache[expression_id]
 583
 584        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 585
 586        if callable(transform):
 587            sql = transform(self, expression)
 588        elif transform:
 589            sql = transform
 590        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 591            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 592
 593            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 594                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 595            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 596                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 597            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 598                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 599            else:
 600                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 601        else:
 602            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 603
 604        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 605
 606        if self._cache is not None:
 607            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 608        return sql
 609
 610    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 611        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 612        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 613        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 614
 615    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 616        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 617        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        options = expression.args.get("options")
 619        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 620        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 621        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 622        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 623        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 624
 625    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 626        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 627            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 628        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 629        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 630
 631    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 632        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 633
 634        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 635            join_mark = ""
 636            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 637
 638        column = ".".join(
 639            self.sql(part)
 640            for part in (
 641                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 642                expression.args.get("db"),
 643                expression.args.get("table"),
 644                expression.args.get("this"),
 645            )
 646            if part
 647        )
 648
 649        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 650
 651    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 653        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 654        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 655        return f"{position}{this}"
 656
 657    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 658        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 659        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 660        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 661        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 662        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 663        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 664        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 665        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 666
 667        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 668            kind = ""
 669
 670        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 671
 672    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 674        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 675        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 676
 677    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 679        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 680            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 681        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 682            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 683        else:
 684            persisted = ""
 685        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 686
 687    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 688        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 689
 690    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 691        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 692            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 693        else:
 694            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 695
 696        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 697
 698    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 699        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 700    ) -> str:
 701        this = ""
 702        if expression.this is not None:
 703            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 704            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 705
 706        start = expression.args.get("start")
 707        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 708        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 709        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 710        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 711        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 712        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 713        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 714        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 715        cycle_sql = ""
 716
 717        if cycle is not None:
 718            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 719            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 720
 721        sequence_opts = ""
 722        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 723            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 724            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 725
 726        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 727        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 728
 729        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 730
 731    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 732        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 733
 734    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 735        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 736        if desc is not None:
 737            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 738        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 739
 740    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 742        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 743        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 744        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 745        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 746
 747    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 748        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 749
 750    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 751        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 752        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 753        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 754
 755        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 756
 757        properties_sql = ""
 758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 759            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 760        ):
 761            properties_sql = self.sql(
 762                exp.Properties(
 763                    expressions=[
 764                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 766                    ]
 767                )
 768            )
 769
 770        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 771        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 772
 773        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 774        if expression_sql:
 775            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 776
 777            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 778                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 779                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 780                        exp.Properties(
 781                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 782                        ),
 783                        wrapped=False,
 784                    )
 785                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 786                else:
 787                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 788
 789        postindex_props_sql = ""
 790        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 791            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 792                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 793                wrapped=False,
 794                prefix=" ",
 795            )
 796
 797        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 798        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 799        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 800
 801        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 802        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 803
 804        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 805        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 806            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 807                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 808                sep=" ",
 809                prefix=" ",
 810                wrapped=False,
 811            )
 812
 813        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 814
 815        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 816        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 817            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 818                exp.Properties(
 819                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 820                ),
 821                sep=" ",
 822                prefix=" ",
 823                wrapped=False,
 824            )
 825
 826        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 827        no_schema_binding = (
 828            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 829        )
 830
 831        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 832        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 833
 834        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 836
 837    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 840        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 841        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 842        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 843
 844        if when:
 845            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 846            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 847            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 848
 849        return this
 850
 851    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 852        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 853
 854    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 855        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 856        if with_:
 857            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 858        return sql
 859
 860    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 861        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 862        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 863
 864        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 865
 866    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 868        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 869
 870    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 871        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 873        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 874        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 875
 876    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 878        if self.BIT_START:
 879            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 880        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 881
 882    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 884        if self.HEX_START:
 885            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 886        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 887
 888    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 890        if self.BYTE_START:
 891            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 892        return this
 893
 894    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 895        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 896        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 897
 898    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 901        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 902        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 903
 904    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 905        type_value = expression.this
 906
 907        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 908            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 909        else:
 910            type_sql = (
 911                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 912                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 913                else type_value
 914            )
 915
 916        nested = ""
 917        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 918        values = ""
 919
 920        if interior:
 921            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 922                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 923                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 924                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 925                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 926                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 927            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 928                nested = f" {interior}"
 929            else:
 930                nested = f"({interior})"
 931
 932        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 933        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 934            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 935            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 936        ):
 937            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 938
 939        return type_sql
 940
 941    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 942        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 943        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 944        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 945        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 946
 947    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 949        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 950        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 951        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 952        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 953        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 954        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 955        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 956        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 957        if self.RETURNING_END:
 958            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 959        else:
 960            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 961        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 962
 963    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 966        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 967        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 968        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 969        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 970        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 971        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 972        return (
 973            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 974        )
 975
 976    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 977        return self.prepend_ctes(
 978            expression,
 979            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 980        )
 981
 982    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 983        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 984
 985    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 986        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 987        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 988        count = expression.args.get("count")
 989        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 990        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 991            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 992        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 993        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 994
 995    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 996        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 997            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 999            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1000
1001        agg = expression.this.copy()
1002        agg_arg = agg.this
1003        cond = expression.expression.this
1004        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1005        return self.sql(agg)
1006
1007    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1008        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1009            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1010            return ""
1011
1012        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1013
1014    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1015        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1016        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1017        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1018        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1019        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1020        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1021        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1022        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1023        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1024        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1025        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1026        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1027        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1028        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1029        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1030        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1031
1032    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1033        text = expression.name
1034        lower = text.lower()
1035        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1036        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1037        if (
1038            expression.quoted
1039            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1040            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1041            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1042        ):
1043            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1044        return text
1045
1046    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1047        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1048        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1049        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1050        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1051        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1052
1053    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1054        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1055        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1056
1057    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1058        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1059
1060    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1061        root_properties = []
1062        with_properties = []
1063
1064        for p in expression.expressions:
1065            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1066            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1067                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1068            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1069                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1070
1071        return self.root_properties(
1072            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1073        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1074
1075    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1076        if properties.expressions:
1077            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1078        return ""
1079
1080    def properties(
1081        self,
1082        properties: exp.Properties,
1083        prefix: str = "",
1084        sep: str = ", ",
1085        suffix: str = "",
1086        wrapped: bool = True,
1087    ) -> str:
1088        if properties.expressions:
1089            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1090            if expressions:
1091                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1092                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1093        return ""
1094
1095    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1096        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1097
1098    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1099        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1100        for p in properties.expressions:
1101            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1102            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1103                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1104            else:
1105                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1106
1107        return properties_locs
1108
1109    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1110        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1111            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1113
1114    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1115        property_cls = expression.__class__
1116        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1117            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1118
1119        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1120        if not property_name:
1121            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1122
1123        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1124
1125    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1126        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1127        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1128        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1129
1130    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1131        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1132        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1133        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1134
1135    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1136        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1137        local = expression.args.get("local")
1138        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1139        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1140        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1141        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1142        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1143
1144    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1145        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1147        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1148
1149    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1150        if expression.args.get("default"):
1151            property = "DEFAULT"
1152        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1153            property = "ON"
1154        else:
1155            property = "OFF"
1156        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1157
1158    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1159        if expression.args.get("no"):
1160            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1161        if expression.args.get("default"):
1162            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1163
1164        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1165        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1166
1167    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1168        default = expression.args.get("default")
1169        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1170        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1171        if default or minimum or maximum:
1172            if default:
1173                prop = "DEFAULT"
1174            elif minimum:
1175                prop = "MINIMUM"
1176            else:
1177                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1178            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1179        units = expression.args.get("units")
1180        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1181        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1182
1183    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1184        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1185        always = expression.args.get("always")
1186        default = expression.args.get("default")
1187        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1188        never = expression.args.get("never")
1189
1190        if autotemp is not None:
1191            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1192        elif always:
1193            prop = "ALWAYS"
1194        elif default:
1195            prop = "DEFAULT"
1196        elif manual:
1197            prop = "MANUAL"
1198        elif never:
1199            prop = "NEVER"
1200        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1201
1202    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1203        no = expression.args.get("no")
1204        no = " NO" if no else ""
1205        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1206        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1207
1208        for_ = ""
1209        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1210            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1211        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1212            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1213        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1214            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1215        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1216
1217    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1218        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1219        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1220        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1221        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1222        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1223        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1224
1225    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1226        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1227        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1228        statistics_sql = ""
1229        if statistics is not None:
1230            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1231        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1232
1233    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1234        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1235
1236        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1237            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1238        else:
1239            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1240
1241        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1242        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1243        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1244
1245        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1246
1247        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1248        partition_sql = (
1249            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1250        )
1251        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1252        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1253        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1254        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1255        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1256        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1257
1258        if self.RETURNING_END:
1259            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1260        else:
1261            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1262
1263        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1265
1266    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1267        return self.prepend_ctes(
1268            expression,
1269            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1270        )
1271
1272    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1273        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1274
1275    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1276        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1277
1278    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1279        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1280        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1283        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1284
1285    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1286        return expression.name.upper()
1287
1288    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1289        return expression.name.upper()
1290
1291    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1292        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1293        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1294        if constraint:
1295            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1296        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1297        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1298        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1300        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1301        if expressions:
1302            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1303        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1304
1305    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1306        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1307
1308    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1309        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1310        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1311        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1312        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1313        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1314        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1315        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1316        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1317        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1318        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1319        null = expression.args.get("null")
1320        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1321        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1322
1323    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1324        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1325
1326    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1327        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1328        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1329        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1330        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1331
1332    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1333        table = ".".join(
1334            part
1335            for part in [
1336                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1337                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1338                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1339            ]
1340            if part
1341        )
1342
1343        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1344        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1345        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1346        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1347        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1348        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1349        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1350        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1351        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1352        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1353        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1354        if file_format:
1355            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1356            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1357            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1358
1359        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1360
1361    def tablesample_sql(
1362        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1363    ) -> str:
1364        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1365            table = expression.this.copy()
1366            table.set("alias", None)
1367            this = self.sql(table)
1368            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1369        else:
1370            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371            alias = ""
1372
1373        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1374        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1375        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1376        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1377        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1378        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1379        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1380        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1381        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1382        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1383        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1384
1385        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1386        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1387            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1388
1389        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1390        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1391        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1392
1393        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1394        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1395            expr = f"({expr})"
1396
1397        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1398
1399    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1400        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1401
1402        if expression.this:
1403            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1404            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1405            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1406            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1407            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1408            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1409
1410        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1411        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1412        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1413        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1414        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1415        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1416        if include_nulls is not None:
1417            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1418        else:
1419            nulls = ""
1420        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1421
1422    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1423        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1424        kind = expression.text("kind")
1425        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1426        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1427
1428    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1429        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1430
1431    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1434        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1435        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1436        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1437        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1438        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1439        if self.RETURNING_END:
1440            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1441        else:
1442            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1443        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1445
1446    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1447        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1448        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1449            args = self.expressions(expression)
1450            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1451            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1452            values = (
1453                f"({values})"
1454                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1455                else values
1456            )
1457            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1458
1459        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1460        expression = expression.copy()
1461        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1462        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1463
1464        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1465
1466        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1467            row = tup.expressions
1468
1469            if i == 0 and column_names:
1470                row = [
1471                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1472                ]
1473
1474            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1475
1476        if self.pretty:
1477            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1478            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1479            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1480            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1481            return self.subquery_sql(
1482                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1483            )
1484
1485        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1486        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1487        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1488
1489    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1490        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1491
1492    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1493        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1494        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1495        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1496
1497    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1498        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1499
1500    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1501        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1502
1503        if expression.args.get("all"):
1504            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1505
1506        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1507        grouping_sets = (
1508            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1509        )
1510
1511        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1512        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1513            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1514        else:
1515            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1516            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1517
1518        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1519        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1520            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1521        else:
1522            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1523            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1524
1525        groupings = csv(
1526            grouping_sets,
1527            cube_sql,
1528            rollup_sql,
1529            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1530            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1531        )
1532
1533        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1534            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1535
1536        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1537
1538    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1539        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1540        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1541
1542    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1543        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1544        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1545        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1546        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1547        return start + connect
1548
1549    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1550        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1551
1552    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1553        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1554            side = None
1555        else:
1556            side = expression.side
1557
1558        op_sql = " ".join(
1559            op
1560            for op in (
1561                expression.method,
1562                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1563                side,
1564                expression.kind,
1565                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1566            )
1567            if op
1568        )
1569        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1570        using = expression.args.get("using")
1571
1572        if not on_sql and using:
1573            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1574
1575        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576
1577        if on_sql:
1578            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1579            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1580            if using:
1581                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1582            else:
1583                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1584        elif not op_sql:
1585            return f", {this_sql}"
1586
1587        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1588        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1589
1590    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1591        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1592        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1593        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1594
1595    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597
1598        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1599            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1600
1601        if expression.args.get("view"):
1602            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1603            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1604            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1605            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1606            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1607            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1608
1609        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1610        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1611        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1612
1613    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        args = ", ".join(
1616            sql
1617            for sql in (
1618                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1619                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1620            )
1621            if sql
1622        )
1623        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1624
1625    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1627        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1628
1629    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1631        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1633        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1634        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1635        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1636        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1637        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1638
1639    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1640        expressions = (
1641            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1642        )
1643        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1644        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1645
1646    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1647        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1648
1649    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1650        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1651            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1652            return ""
1653
1654        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1655        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1656        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1657        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1658
1659        if wait is not None:
1660            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1661                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1662            else:
1663                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1664
1665        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1666
1667    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1668        text = expression.this or ""
1669        if expression.is_string:
1670            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1671        return text
1672
1673    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1674        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1675        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1676            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1677        elif self.pretty:
1678            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1679        return text
1680
1681    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1682        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1683        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1684        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1685        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1686        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1687        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1688        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1689        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1690        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1691        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1692        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1693
1694    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1695        return "NULL"
1696
1697    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1698        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1699
1700    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1703        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1704
1705    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1706        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1707
1708    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1709        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1710
1711    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1712        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1713
1714    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1715        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1716        asc = not desc
1717
1718        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1719        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1720        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1721        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1722        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1723
1724        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1725        nulls_sort_change = ""
1726        if nulls_first and (
1727            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1728        ):
1729            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1730        elif (
1731            nulls_last
1732            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1733            and not nulls_are_last
1734        ):
1735            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1736
1737        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1738            self.unsupported(
1739                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1740            )
1741            nulls_sort_change = ""
1742
1743        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1744
1745    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1746        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1747        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1748        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1749        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1750        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1751        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1752        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1753        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1754        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1755        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1756        definition_sqls = [
1757            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1758            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1759        ]
1760        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1761        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1762        body = "".join(
1763            (
1764                partition,
1765                order,
1766                measures,
1767                rows,
1768                after,
1769                pattern,
1770                define,
1771            )
1772        )
1773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1774        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1775        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1776
1777    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1778        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1779
1780        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1781        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1782
1783        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1784            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1785        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1786            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1787
1788        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1789
1790        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1791            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1792            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1793            else []
1794        )
1795
1796        return csv(
1797            *sqls,
1798            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1799            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1800            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1801            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1802            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1803            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1804            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1805            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1806            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1807            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1808            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1809            sep="",
1810        )
1811
1812    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1813        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1814    ) -> t.List[str]:
1815        return [
1816            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1817            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1818        ]
1819
1820    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1821        return [
1822            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1823            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1824            if expression.args.get("windows")
1825            else "",
1826            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1827            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1828            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1829        ]
1830
1831    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1832        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1833        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1834        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1835
1836    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1837        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1838        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1839        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1840        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1841        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1842        top = (
1843            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1844            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1845            else ""
1846        )
1847
1848        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1849
1850        if kind:
1851            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1852                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1853            else:
1854                if kind == "STRUCT":
1855                    expressions = self.expressions(
1856                        sqls=[
1857                            self.sql(
1858                                exp.Struct(
1859                                    expressions=[
1860                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1861                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1862                                        )
1863                                        for e in expression.expressions
1864                                    ]
1865                                )
1866                            )
1867                        ]
1868                    )
1869                kind = ""
1870
1871        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1872        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1873            expression,
1874            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1875            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1876            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1877        )
1878        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1879
1880    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1882        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1883        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1884        return f"{this}{sql}"
1885
1886    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1887        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1888
1889    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1890        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1891        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1892        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1893        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1894        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1895
1896    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1899
1900    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1902        kind = expression.text("kind")
1903        if kind:
1904            kind = f"{kind}."
1905        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1906
1907    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1908        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1909
1910    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1911        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1912        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1913
1914        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1915        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1916
1917        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1918        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1919
1920    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1921        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1922        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1923
1924    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1925        return self.prepend_ctes(
1926            expression,
1927            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1928        )
1929
1930    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1931        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1932        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1933        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1934        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1935
1936    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1937        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1938
1939        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1940        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1941
1942        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1943            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1944                alias = alias.copy()
1945                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1946
1947        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1948            columns = alias.columns
1949            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1950        else:
1951            alias = self.sql(alias)
1952
1953        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1954        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1955            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1956        else:
1957            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1958                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1959            elif offset:
1960                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1961            else:
1962                suffix = alias
1963
1964        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1965
1966    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1967        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1968        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1969
1970    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1973        order = expression.args.get("order")
1974        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1975        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1976        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1977        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1978
1979        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1980
1981        first = expression.args.get("first")
1982        if first is None:
1983            first = ""
1984        else:
1985            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1986
1987        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1988            return f"{this} {alias}"
1989
1990        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1991        return f"{this} ({args})"
1992
1993    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1994        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1995        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1996
1997    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1998        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1999        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2000        end = (
2001            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2002            or "CURRENT ROW"
2003        )
2004        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2005
2006    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2009        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2010
2011    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2014        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2015        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2016
2017    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2018        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2019        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2020
2021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2022
2023    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2024        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2025
2026    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2027        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2028
2029    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2032            this = self.wrap(this)
2033        return f"ANY {this}"
2034
2035    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2036        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2037
2038    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2041
2042        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2043            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2044            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2045
2046        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2047
2048        if default:
2049            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2050
2051        statements.append("END")
2052
2053        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2054            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2055
2056        return " ".join(statements)
2057
2058    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2061        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2062
2063    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2064        order = expression.args.get("order")
2065        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2066        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2067
2068    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2070        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2071        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2072
2073    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2074        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2075
2076        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2077            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2078        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2079            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2080        else:
2081            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2082
2083    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2084        expressions = expression.expressions
2085        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2086            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2087        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2088
2089    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2090        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2091        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2092
2093    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2094        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2095        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2096        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2097        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2098        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2099        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2100        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2101        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2102
2103    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2107        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2108
2109    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2110        expression = expression.copy()
2111        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2112
2113    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2114        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2115        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2116        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2117
2118    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2120
2121    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2123
2124    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2125        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2126        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2127        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2128        if unique_keys is not None:
2129            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2130        else:
2131            unique_keys = ""
2132        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2133        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2134        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2135        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2136        return self.func(
2137            "JSON_OBJECT",
2138            *expression.expressions,
2139            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2140        )
2141
2142    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2143        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2144        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2145        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2146        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2147        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2148        return self.func(
2149            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2150        )
2151
2152    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2154        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2155        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2156        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2157        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2158        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2159        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2160        return self.func(
2161            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2162            this,
2163            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2164        )
2165
2166    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2168        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2169        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2170        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2171        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2172        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2173
2174    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2177        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2178        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2179        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2180        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2181        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2182        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2183        return self.func(
2184            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2185        )
2186
2187    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2190        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2191        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2192        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2193        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2194
2195    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2198        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2199        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2200        with_ = (
2201            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2202            if expressions
2203            else ""
2204        )
2205        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2206
2207    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2208        query = expression.args.get("query")
2209        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2210        field = expression.args.get("field")
2211        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2212
2213        if query:
2214            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2215        elif unnest:
2216            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2217        elif field:
2218            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2219        else:
2220            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2221
2222        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2223
2224    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2225        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2226
2227    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2228        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2229        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2230            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2231        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2232
2233        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2234            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2235            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2236
2237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2238        if this:
2239            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2240            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2241
2242        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2243
2244    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2245        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2246
2247    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2250        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2251        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2252        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2253        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2254
2255    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2256        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2257
2258    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2259        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2260            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2261        else:
2262            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2263            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2264
2265        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2266
2267    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2268        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2269        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2271        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2272
2273    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2274        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2275
2276    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2277        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2278        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2279        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2280
2281    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2282        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2283
2284    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2287        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2288
2289    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2291
2292    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2293        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2294
2295    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2296        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2297
2298    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2299        if not self.pretty:
2300            return self.binary(expression, op)
2301
2302        sqls = tuple(
2303            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2304            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2305        )
2306
2307        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2308        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2309
2310    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2311        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2312
2313    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2314        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2315
2316    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2317        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2318
2319    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2320        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2321
2322    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2324
2325    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2327
2328    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2329        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2330        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2331        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2332
2333    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2334        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2336
2337    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2338        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2339            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2340        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2341
2342    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2344
2345    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2348        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2349        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2350        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2351
2352    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2355        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2356        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2357        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2358        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2359        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2360        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2361        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2362
2363    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2364        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2365        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2366        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2367        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2368
2369        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2370            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2371
2372        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2373
2374    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2375        return "BEGIN"
2376
2377    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2378        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2379        if chain is not None:
2380            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2381
2382        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2383
2384    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2385        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2386        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2387        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2388
2389    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391
2392        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2393        if dtype:
2394            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2395            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2396            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2397            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2398            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2399
2400        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2401        if default:
2402            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2403
2404        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2405            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2406
2407        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2408
2409    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2410        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2411            # Remove db from tables
2412            expression = expression.transform(
2413                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2414            )
2415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2416        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2417
2418    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2419        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2420
2421        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2422            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2423                actions = self.expressions(
2424                    expression,
2425                    key="actions",
2426                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2427                )
2428            else:
2429                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2430        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2431            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2432        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2433            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2434        else:
2435            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2436
2437        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2438        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2439        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2440
2441    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2442        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2443        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2444        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2445
2446    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2449        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2450
2451        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2452        if enforced is not None:
2453            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2454
2455        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2456
2457    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2458        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2459        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2460
2461        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2462        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2463        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2464
2465    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2467
2468    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2469        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2470
2471    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2472        return self.sql(
2473            exp.Cast(
2474                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2475                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2476            )
2477        )
2478
2479    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2480        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2481
2482    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2483        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2484            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2485        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2486
2487    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2488        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2489
2490    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2491        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2492
2493    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2494        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2495
2496    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2497        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2498
2499    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2500        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2501
2502    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2503        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2504
2505    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2506        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2507
2508    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2509        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2510
2511    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2512        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2513
2514    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2515        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2516
2517    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2518        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2519
2520    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2521        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2522            return self.sql(
2523                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2524            )
2525        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2526
2527    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2528        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2529
2530    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2531        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2532
2533    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2534        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2535
2536    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2537        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2538
2539    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2540        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2541
2542    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2544
2545    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2546        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2547
2548    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2549        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2550
2551    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2552        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2553
2554    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2555        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2556
2557    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2558        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2559
2560    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2561        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2562
2563    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2564        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2565
2566    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2567        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2568
2569    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2570        args = list(expression.args.values())
2571        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2572            args.reverse()
2573        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2574
2575    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2576        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2577        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2580        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2581
2582    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2583        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2584        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2585
2586    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2587        args = []
2588
2589        for key in expression.arg_types:
2590            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2591
2592            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2593                for value in arg_value:
2594                    args.append(value)
2595            elif arg_value is not None:
2596                args.append(arg_value)
2597
2598        if self.normalize_functions:
2599            name = expression.sql_name()
2600        else:
2601            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2602
2603        return self.func(name, *args)
2604
2605    def func(
2606        self,
2607        name: str,
2608        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2609        prefix: str = "(",
2610        suffix: str = ")",
2611    ) -> str:
2612        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2613
2614    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2615        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2616        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2617            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2618        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2619
2620    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2621        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2622
2623    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2624        return format_time(
2625            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2626        )
2627
2628    def expressions(
2629        self,
2630        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2631        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2632        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2633        flat: bool = False,
2634        indent: bool = True,
2635        skip_first: bool = False,
2636        sep: str = ", ",
2637        prefix: str = "",
2638    ) -> str:
2639        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2640
2641        if not expressions:
2642            return ""
2643
2644        if flat:
2645            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2646
2647        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2648
2649        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2650        pad = " " * self.pad
2651        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2652
2653        result_sqls = []
2654        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2655            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2656            if not sql:
2657                continue
2658
2659            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2660
2661            if self.pretty:
2662                if self.leading_comma:
2663                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2664                else:
2665                    result_sqls.append(
2666                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2667                    )
2668            else:
2669                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2670
2671        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2672        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2673
2674    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2675        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2676        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2677        if flat:
2678            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2679        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2680
2681    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2682        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2683        if not property_name:
2684            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2685        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2686
2687    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        op = self.seg(op)
2690        return self.query_modifiers(
2691            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2692        )
2693
2694    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2695        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2696
2697    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2698        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2699
2700    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2702        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2703        expressions = (
2704            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2705        )
2706        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2707
2708    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2711        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2712
2713    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2714        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2715
2716    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2717        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2718        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2719        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2720        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2721
2722        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2723        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2724            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2725            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2726                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2727        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2728            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2729                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2730            else:
2731                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2732        else:
2733            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2734        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2735
2736    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2737        table = expression.this
2738        table_alias = ""
2739
2740        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2741        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2742            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2743            table = table.copy()
2744            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2745
2746        this = self.sql(table)
2747        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2748        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2750
2751        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2752
2753    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2754        if expression.args.get("format"):
2755            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2756
2757        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2758
2759    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2762        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2763        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2764        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2765
2766    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2769        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2770        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2771
2772    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2774
2775    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2776        return ""
2777
2778    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2779        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2780        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2781        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2782        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2783        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2784
2785    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2787        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2788
2789        if having:
2790            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2791
2792        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2793
2794    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2795        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2796        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2797        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2798        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2799        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2800        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2801        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2802        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2803        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2804        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2805        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2806        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2807        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2808
2809    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2810        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2811        if key_block_size:
2812            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2813
2814        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2815        if using:
2816            return f"USING {using}"
2817
2818        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2819        if parser:
2820            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2821
2822        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2823        if comment:
2824            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2825
2826        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2827        if visible is not None:
2828            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2829
2830        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2831        if engine_attr:
2832            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2833
2834        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2835        if secondary_engine_attr:
2836            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2837
2838        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2839        return ""
2840
2841    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2842        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2843        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2845        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2846        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2847        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2848        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2849        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2850        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2851        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2852        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2853
2854    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2855        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2856            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2857
2858        case = exp.Case().when(
2859            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2860            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2861            copy=False,
2862        )
2863        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2864        if else_cond:
2865            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2866
2867        return self.sql(case)
2868
2869    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2872        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2873        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2874        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2875        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2876
2877    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2878        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2879
2880    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2881        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2882
2883
2884def cached_generator(
2885    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2886) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2887    """Returns a cached generator."""
2888    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2889    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2890    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  18class Generator:
  19    """
  20    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  21
  22    Args:
  23        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  24            Default: False.
  25        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  26            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  27            True or 'always': Always quote.
  28            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  29        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  30            Default: False.
  31        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  36            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  37            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  38            False: Disables function name normalization.
  39        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  40            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  41        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  42            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  43            Default: 3
  44        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  45            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  46            Default: False
  47        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  48            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  49            line length.
  50            Default: 80
  51        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  52            Default: True
  53    """
  54
  55    TRANSFORMS = {
  56        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  92        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  93        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  94        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  95        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  96        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  97        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  98        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 100        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 101        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 102        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103    }
 104
 105    # Whether the base comes first
 106    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 109    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 112    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 113
 114    # Always do union distinct or union all
 115    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 116
 117    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 118    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 121    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 124    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 127    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 130    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 133    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 136    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 142    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 143
 144    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 145    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 146
 147    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 148    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 149
 150    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 151    JOIN_HINTS = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 154    TABLE_HINTS = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 157    QUERY_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 160    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 161
 162    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 163    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 166    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 169    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 172    RETURNING_END = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 175    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 178    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 179
 180    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 181    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 182
 183    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 184    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 185
 186    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 187    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 188
 189    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 190    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 191    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 192    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 193
 194    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 195    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 196
 197    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 198    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 199
 200    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 201    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 204    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 207    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 210    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 213    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 216    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 219    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 220
 221    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 222    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 223
 224    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 225        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 226        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 227        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 228        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 229        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 230        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 231        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 232        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 233        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 234    }
 235
 236    STAR_MAPPING = {
 237        "except": "EXCEPT",
 238        "replace": "REPLACE",
 239    }
 240
 241    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 242        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 243        "seconds": "second",
 244        "minutes": "minute",
 245        "hours": "hour",
 246        "days": "day",
 247        "weeks": "week",
 248        "months": "month",
 249        "quarters": "quarter",
 250        "years": "year",
 251    }
 252
 253    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 254
 255    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 256
 257    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 258
 259    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 260        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 261        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 263        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 265        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 270        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 280        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 282        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 283        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 288        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 290        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 292        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 294        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 296        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 298        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 308        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 310        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 312        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 314        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 316        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 317        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 318    }
 319
 320    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 321    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 322
 323    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 324    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 325        exp.Create,
 326        exp.Delete,
 327        exp.Drop,
 328        exp.From,
 329        exp.Insert,
 330        exp.Join,
 331        exp.Select,
 332        exp.Update,
 333        exp.Where,
 334        exp.With,
 335    )
 336
 337    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 338    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 339        exp.Column,
 340        exp.Literal,
 341        exp.Neg,
 342        exp.Paren,
 343    )
 344
 345    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 346
 347    # Autofilled
 348    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 349    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 350    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 351    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 352    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 353    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 354    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 355    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 356    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 357    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 358
 359    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 360
 361    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 362    QUOTE_START = "'"
 363    QUOTE_END = "'"
 364    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 365    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 366    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 367
 368    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 369    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 370    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 371    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 372    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 373    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 374    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 375
 376    __slots__ = (
 377        "pretty",
 378        "identify",
 379        "normalize",
 380        "pad",
 381        "_indent",
 382        "normalize_functions",
 383        "unsupported_level",
 384        "max_unsupported",
 385        "leading_comma",
 386        "max_text_width",
 387        "comments",
 388        "unsupported_messages",
 389        "_escaped_quote_end",
 390        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 391        "_cache",
 392    )
 393
 394    def __init__(
 395        self,
 396        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 397        identify: str | bool = False,
 398        normalize: bool = False,
 399        pad: int = 2,
 400        indent: int = 2,
 401        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 402        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 403        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 404        leading_comma: bool = False,
 405        max_text_width: int = 80,
 406        comments: bool = True,
 407    ):
 408        import sqlglot
 409
 410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 411        self.identify = identify
 412        self.normalize = normalize
 413        self.pad = pad
 414        self._indent = indent
 415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 419        self.comments = comments
 420
 421        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 422        self.normalize_functions = (
 423            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 424        )
 425
 426        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 427        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 428        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 429            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 430        )
 431        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 432
 433    def generate(
 434        self,
 435        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 436        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 437    ) -> str:
 438        """
 439        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 440
 441        Args:
 442            expression: The syntax tree.
 443            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 444                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 445
 446        Returns:
 447            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 448        """
 449        if cache is not None:
 450            self._cache = cache
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages = []
 453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 454        self._cache = None
 455
 456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 457            return sql
 458
 459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 461                logger.warning(msg)
 462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 464
 465        if self.pretty:
 466            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 467        return sql
 468
 469    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 470        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 471            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 472        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 473
 474    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 475        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 476
 477    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 478        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 479
 480    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 481        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 482        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 483        return comment
 484
 485    def maybe_comment(
 486        self,
 487        sql: str,
 488        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 489        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 490    ) -> str:
 491        comments = (
 492            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 493            if self.comments
 494            else None
 495        )
 496
 497        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 498            return sql
 499
 500        comments_sql = " ".join(
 501            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 502        )
 503
 504        if not comments_sql:
 505            return sql
 506
 507        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 508            return (
 509                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 510                if sql[0].isspace()
 511                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 512            )
 513
 514        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 515
 516    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 517        this_sql = self.indent(
 518            self.sql(expression)
 519            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 520            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 521            level=1,
 522            pad=0,
 523        )
 524        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 525
 526    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 527        original = self.identify
 528        self.identify = False
 529        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 530        self.identify = original
 531        return result
 532
 533    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 534        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 535            return name.upper()
 536        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 537            return name.lower()
 538        return name
 539
 540    def indent(
 541        self,
 542        sql: str,
 543        level: int = 0,
 544        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 545        skip_first: bool = False,
 546        skip_last: bool = False,
 547    ) -> str:
 548        if not self.pretty:
 549            return sql
 550
 551        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 552        lines = sql.split("\n")
 553
 554        return "\n".join(
 555            line
 556            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 557            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 558            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 559        )
 560
 561    def sql(
 562        self,
 563        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 564        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 565        comment: bool = True,
 566    ) -> str:
 567        if not expression:
 568            return ""
 569
 570        if isinstance(expression, str):
 571            return expression
 572
 573        if key:
 574            value = expression.args.get(key)
 575            if value:
 576                return self.sql(value)
 577            return ""
 578
 579        if self._cache is not None:
 580            expression_id = hash(expression)
 581
 582            if expression_id in self._cache:
 583                return self._cache[expression_id]
 584
 585        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 586
 587        if callable(transform):
 588            sql = transform(self, expression)
 589        elif transform:
 590            sql = transform
 591        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 592            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 593
 594            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 595                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 596            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 597                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 598            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 599                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 600            else:
 601                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 602        else:
 603            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 604
 605        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 606
 607        if self._cache is not None:
 608            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 609        return sql
 610
 611    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 612        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 613        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 614        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 615
 616    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 617        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 619        options = expression.args.get("options")
 620        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 621        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 622        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 623        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 625
 626    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 627        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 628            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 629        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 630        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 631
 632    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 633        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 634
 635        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 636            join_mark = ""
 637            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 638
 639        column = ".".join(
 640            self.sql(part)
 641            for part in (
 642                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 643                expression.args.get("db"),
 644                expression.args.get("table"),
 645                expression.args.get("this"),
 646            )
 647            if part
 648        )
 649
 650        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 651
 652    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 655        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 656        return f"{position}{this}"
 657
 658    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 659        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 661        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 662        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 663        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 664        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 665        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 666        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 667
 668        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 669            kind = ""
 670
 671        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 672
 673    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 675        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 676        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 677
 678    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 680        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 681            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 682        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 683            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 684        else:
 685            persisted = ""
 686        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 687
 688    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 689        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 690
 691    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 693            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 694        else:
 695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 696
 697        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 698
 699    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 700        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 701    ) -> str:
 702        this = ""
 703        if expression.this is not None:
 704            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 705            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 706
 707        start = expression.args.get("start")
 708        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 709        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 710        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 711        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 712        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 713        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 714        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 715        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 716        cycle_sql = ""
 717
 718        if cycle is not None:
 719            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 720            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 721
 722        sequence_opts = ""
 723        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 724            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 725            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 726
 727        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 728        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 729
 730        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 731
 732    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 733        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 734
 735    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 736        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 737        if desc is not None:
 738            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 739        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 740
 741    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 743        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 744        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 745        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 746        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 747
 748    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 749        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 750
 751    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 753        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 754        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 755
 756        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 757
 758        properties_sql = ""
 759        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 760            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 761        ):
 762            properties_sql = self.sql(
 763                exp.Properties(
 764                    expressions=[
 765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 766                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 767                    ]
 768                )
 769            )
 770
 771        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 772        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 773
 774        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 775        if expression_sql:
 776            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 777
 778            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 779                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 780                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 781                        exp.Properties(
 782                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 783                        ),
 784                        wrapped=False,
 785                    )
 786                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 787                else:
 788                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 789
 790        postindex_props_sql = ""
 791        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 792            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 793                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 794                wrapped=False,
 795                prefix=" ",
 796            )
 797
 798        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 799        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 800        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 801
 802        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 803        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 804
 805        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 806        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 807            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 808                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 809                sep=" ",
 810                prefix=" ",
 811                wrapped=False,
 812            )
 813
 814        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 815
 816        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 817        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 818            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 819                exp.Properties(
 820                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 821                ),
 822                sep=" ",
 823                prefix=" ",
 824                wrapped=False,
 825            )
 826
 827        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 828        no_schema_binding = (
 829            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 830        )
 831
 832        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 833        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 834
 835        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 837
 838    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 841        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 842        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 843        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 844
 845        if when:
 846            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 847            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 848            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 849
 850        return this
 851
 852    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 853        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 854
 855    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 856        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 857        if with_:
 858            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 859        return sql
 860
 861    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 862        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 863        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 864
 865        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 866
 867    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 869        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 870
 871    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 872        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 874        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 875        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 876
 877    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        if self.BIT_START:
 880            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 881        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 882
 883    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        if self.HEX_START:
 886            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 887        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 888
 889    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 891        if self.BYTE_START:
 892            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 893        return this
 894
 895    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 896        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 897        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 898
 899    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 902        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 903        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 904
 905    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 906        type_value = expression.this
 907
 908        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 909            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 910        else:
 911            type_sql = (
 912                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 913                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 914                else type_value
 915            )
 916
 917        nested = ""
 918        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 919        values = ""
 920
 921        if interior:
 922            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 923                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 924                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 925                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 926                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 927                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 928            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 929                nested = f" {interior}"
 930            else:
 931                nested = f"({interior})"
 932
 933        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 934        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 935            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 936            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 937        ):
 938            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 939
 940        return type_sql
 941
 942    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 943        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 944        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 945        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 946        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 947
 948    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 952        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 953        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 954        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 955        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 956        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 957        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 958        if self.RETURNING_END:
 959            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 960        else:
 961            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 962        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 963
 964    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 967        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 968        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 969        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 970        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 971        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 972        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 973        return (
 974            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 975        )
 976
 977    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 978        return self.prepend_ctes(
 979            expression,
 980            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 981        )
 982
 983    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 984        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 985
 986    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 987        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 988        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 989        count = expression.args.get("count")
 990        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 991        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 992            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 993        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 994        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 995
 996    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 997        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 998            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 999            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1000            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1001
1002        agg = expression.this.copy()
1003        agg_arg = agg.this
1004        cond = expression.expression.this
1005        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1006        return self.sql(agg)
1007
1008    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1009        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1010            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1011            return ""
1012
1013        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1014
1015    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1016        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1017        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1018        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1019        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1021        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1022        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1023        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1024        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1025        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1026        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1027        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1028        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1029        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1030        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1031        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1032
1033    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1034        text = expression.name
1035        lower = text.lower()
1036        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1037        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1038        if (
1039            expression.quoted
1040            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1041            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1042            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1043        ):
1044            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1045        return text
1046
1047    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1048        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1049        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1050        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1051        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1052        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1053
1054    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1055        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1056        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1057
1058    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1059        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1060
1061    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1062        root_properties = []
1063        with_properties = []
1064
1065        for p in expression.expressions:
1066            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1067            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1068                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1069            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1070                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1071
1072        return self.root_properties(
1073            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1074        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1075
1076    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1077        if properties.expressions:
1078            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1079        return ""
1080
1081    def properties(
1082        self,
1083        properties: exp.Properties,
1084        prefix: str = "",
1085        sep: str = ", ",
1086        suffix: str = "",
1087        wrapped: bool = True,
1088    ) -> str:
1089        if properties.expressions:
1090            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1091            if expressions:
1092                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1093                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1094        return ""
1095
1096    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1097        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1098
1099    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1100        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1101        for p in properties.expressions:
1102            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1103            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1104                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1105            else:
1106                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1107
1108        return properties_locs
1109
1110    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1111        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1112            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1114
1115    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1116        property_cls = expression.__class__
1117        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1118            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1119
1120        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1121        if not property_name:
1122            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1123
1124        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1125
1126    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1127        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1128        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1129        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1130
1131    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1132        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1133        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1134        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1135
1136    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1137        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1138        local = expression.args.get("local")
1139        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1140        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1141        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1142        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1143        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1144
1145    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1146        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1148        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1149
1150    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1151        if expression.args.get("default"):
1152            property = "DEFAULT"
1153        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1154            property = "ON"
1155        else:
1156            property = "OFF"
1157        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1158
1159    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1160        if expression.args.get("no"):
1161            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1162        if expression.args.get("default"):
1163            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1164
1165        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1166        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1167
1168    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1169        default = expression.args.get("default")
1170        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1171        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1172        if default or minimum or maximum:
1173            if default:
1174                prop = "DEFAULT"
1175            elif minimum:
1176                prop = "MINIMUM"
1177            else:
1178                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1179            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1180        units = expression.args.get("units")
1181        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1182        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1183
1184    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1185        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1186        always = expression.args.get("always")
1187        default = expression.args.get("default")
1188        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1189        never = expression.args.get("never")
1190
1191        if autotemp is not None:
1192            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1193        elif always:
1194            prop = "ALWAYS"
1195        elif default:
1196            prop = "DEFAULT"
1197        elif manual:
1198            prop = "MANUAL"
1199        elif never:
1200            prop = "NEVER"
1201        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1202
1203    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1204        no = expression.args.get("no")
1205        no = " NO" if no else ""
1206        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1207        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1208
1209        for_ = ""
1210        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1211            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1212        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1213            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1214        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1215            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1216        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1217
1218    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1219        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1220        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1221        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1222        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1223        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1224        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1225
1226    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1227        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1228        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1229        statistics_sql = ""
1230        if statistics is not None:
1231            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1232        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1233
1234    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1235        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1236
1237        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1238            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1239        else:
1240            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1241
1242        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1243        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1244        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1245
1246        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1247
1248        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1249        partition_sql = (
1250            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1251        )
1252        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1253        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1254        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1255        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1256        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1257        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1258
1259        if self.RETURNING_END:
1260            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1261        else:
1262            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1263
1264        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1265        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1266
1267    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1268        return self.prepend_ctes(
1269            expression,
1270            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1271        )
1272
1273    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1274        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1275
1276    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1277        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1278
1279    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1280        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1281        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1284        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1285
1286    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1287        return expression.name.upper()
1288
1289    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1290        return expression.name.upper()
1291
1292    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1293        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1294        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1295        if constraint:
1296            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1297        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1298        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1299        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1300        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1301        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1302        if expressions:
1303            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1304        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1305
1306    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1307        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1308
1309    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1310        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1311        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1312        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1313        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1314        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1315        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1316        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1317        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1318        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1319        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1320        null = expression.args.get("null")
1321        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1322        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1323
1324    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1325        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1326
1327    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1328        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1329        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1330        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1331        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1332
1333    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1334        table = ".".join(
1335            part
1336            for part in [
1337                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1338                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1339                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1340            ]
1341            if part
1342        )
1343
1344        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1345        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1346        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1347        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1348        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1349        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1350        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1351        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1352        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1353        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1354        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1355        if file_format:
1356            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1357            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1358            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1359
1360        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1361
1362    def tablesample_sql(
1363        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1364    ) -> str:
1365        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1366            table = expression.this.copy()
1367            table.set("alias", None)
1368            this = self.sql(table)
1369            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1370        else:
1371            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1372            alias = ""
1373
1374        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1375        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1376        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1377        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1378        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1379        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1380        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1381        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1382        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1383        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1384        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1385
1386        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1387        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1388            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1389
1390        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1391        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1392        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1393
1394        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1395        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1396            expr = f"({expr})"
1397
1398        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1399
1400    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1402
1403        if expression.this:
1404            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1405            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1406            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1407            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1408            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1409            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1410
1411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1412        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1413        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1414        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1415        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1416        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1417        if include_nulls is not None:
1418            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1419        else:
1420            nulls = ""
1421        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1422
1423    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1424        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1425        kind = expression.text("kind")
1426        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1427        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1428
1429    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1430        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1431
1432    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1435        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1436        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1437        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1438        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1439        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1440        if self.RETURNING_END:
1441            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1442        else:
1443            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1444        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1445        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1446
1447    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1448        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1449        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1450            args = self.expressions(expression)
1451            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1452            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1453            values = (
1454                f"({values})"
1455                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1456                else values
1457            )
1458            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1459
1460        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1461        expression = expression.copy()
1462        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1463        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1464
1465        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1466
1467        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1468            row = tup.expressions
1469
1470            if i == 0 and column_names:
1471                row = [
1472                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1473                ]
1474
1475            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1476
1477        if self.pretty:
1478            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1479            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1480            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1481            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1482            return self.subquery_sql(
1483                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1484            )
1485
1486        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1487        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1488        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1489
1490    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1491        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1492
1493    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1494        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1495        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1496        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1497
1498    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1499        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1500
1501    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1502        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1503
1504        if expression.args.get("all"):
1505            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1506
1507        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1508        grouping_sets = (
1509            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1510        )
1511
1512        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1513        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1514            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1515        else:
1516            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1517            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1518
1519        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1520        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1521            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1522        else:
1523            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1524            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1525
1526        groupings = csv(
1527            grouping_sets,
1528            cube_sql,
1529            rollup_sql,
1530            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1531            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1532        )
1533
1534        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1535            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1536
1537        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1538
1539    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1540        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1541        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1542
1543    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1544        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1545        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1546        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1547        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1548        return start + connect
1549
1550    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1551        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1552
1553    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1554        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1555            side = None
1556        else:
1557            side = expression.side
1558
1559        op_sql = " ".join(
1560            op
1561            for op in (
1562                expression.method,
1563                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1564                side,
1565                expression.kind,
1566                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1567            )
1568            if op
1569        )
1570        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1571        using = expression.args.get("using")
1572
1573        if not on_sql and using:
1574            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1575
1576        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577
1578        if on_sql:
1579            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1580            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1581            if using:
1582                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1583            else:
1584                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1585        elif not op_sql:
1586            return f", {this_sql}"
1587
1588        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1589        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1590
1591    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1592        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1593        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1594        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1595
1596    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1598
1599        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1600            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1601
1602        if expression.args.get("view"):
1603            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1604            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1605            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1606            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1607            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1608            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1609
1610        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1611        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1612        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1613
1614    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        args = ", ".join(
1617            sql
1618            for sql in (
1619                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1620                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1621            )
1622            if sql
1623        )
1624        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1625
1626    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1628        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1629
1630    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1631        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1632        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1634        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1635        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1636        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1637        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1638        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1639
1640    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1641        expressions = (
1642            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1643        )
1644        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1645        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1646
1647    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1648        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1649
1650    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1651        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1652            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1653            return ""
1654
1655        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1656        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1657        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1658        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1659
1660        if wait is not None:
1661            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1662                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1663            else:
1664                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1665
1666        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1667
1668    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1669        text = expression.this or ""
1670        if expression.is_string:
1671            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1672        return text
1673
1674    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1675        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1676        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1677            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1678        elif self.pretty:
1679            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1680        return text
1681
1682    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1683        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1684        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1685        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1686        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1687        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1688        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1689        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1690        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1691        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1692        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1693        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1694
1695    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1696        return "NULL"
1697
1698    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1699        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1700
1701    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1704        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1705
1706    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1707        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1708
1709    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1710        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1711
1712    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1713        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1714
1715    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1716        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1717        asc = not desc
1718
1719        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1720        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1721        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1722        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1723        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1724
1725        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1726        nulls_sort_change = ""
1727        if nulls_first and (
1728            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1729        ):
1730            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1731        elif (
1732            nulls_last
1733            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1734            and not nulls_are_last
1735        ):
1736            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1737
1738        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1739            self.unsupported(
1740                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1741            )
1742            nulls_sort_change = ""
1743
1744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1745
1746    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1747        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1748        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1749        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1750        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1751        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1752        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1753        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1754        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1755        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1756        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1757        definition_sqls = [
1758            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1759            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1760        ]
1761        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1762        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1763        body = "".join(
1764            (
1765                partition,
1766                order,
1767                measures,
1768                rows,
1769                after,
1770                pattern,
1771                define,
1772            )
1773        )
1774        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1775        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1776        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1777
1778    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1779        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1780
1781        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1782        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1783
1784        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1785            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1786        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1787            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1788
1789        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1790
1791        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1792            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1793            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1794            else []
1795        )
1796
1797        return csv(
1798            *sqls,
1799            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1800            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1801            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1802            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1803            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1804            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1805            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1806            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1807            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1808            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1809            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1810            sep="",
1811        )
1812
1813    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1814        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1815    ) -> t.List[str]:
1816        return [
1817            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1818            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1819        ]
1820
1821    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1822        return [
1823            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1824            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1825            if expression.args.get("windows")
1826            else "",
1827            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1828            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1829            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1830        ]
1831
1832    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1833        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1834        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1835        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1836
1837    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1838        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1839        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1840        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1841        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1842        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1843        top = (
1844            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1845            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1846            else ""
1847        )
1848
1849        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1850
1851        if kind:
1852            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1853                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1854            else:
1855                if kind == "STRUCT":
1856                    expressions = self.expressions(
1857                        sqls=[
1858                            self.sql(
1859                                exp.Struct(
1860                                    expressions=[
1861                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1862                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1863                                        )
1864                                        for e in expression.expressions
1865                                    ]
1866                                )
1867                            )
1868                        ]
1869                    )
1870                kind = ""
1871
1872        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1873        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1874            expression,
1875            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1876            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1877            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1878        )
1879        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1880
1881    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1884        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1885        return f"{this}{sql}"
1886
1887    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1888        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1889
1890    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1891        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1892        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1893        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1894        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1895        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1896
1897    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1900
1901    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        kind = expression.text("kind")
1904        if kind:
1905            kind = f"{kind}."
1906        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1907
1908    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1909        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1910
1911    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1912        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1913        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1914
1915        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1916        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1917
1918        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1919        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1920
1921    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1922        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1923        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1924
1925    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1926        return self.prepend_ctes(
1927            expression,
1928            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1929        )
1930
1931    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1932        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1933        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1934        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1935        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1936
1937    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1938        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1939
1940        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1941        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1942
1943        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1944            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1945                alias = alias.copy()
1946                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1947
1948        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1949            columns = alias.columns
1950            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1951        else:
1952            alias = self.sql(alias)
1953
1954        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1955        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1956            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1957        else:
1958            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1959                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1960            elif offset:
1961                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1962            else:
1963                suffix = alias
1964
1965        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1966
1967    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1968        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1969        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1970
1971    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1974        order = expression.args.get("order")
1975        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1976        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1977        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1978        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1979
1980        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1981
1982        first = expression.args.get("first")
1983        if first is None:
1984            first = ""
1985        else:
1986            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1987
1988        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1989            return f"{this} {alias}"
1990
1991        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1992        return f"{this} ({args})"
1993
1994    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1995        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1996        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1997
1998    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1999        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2000        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2001        end = (
2002            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2003            or "CURRENT ROW"
2004        )
2005        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2006
2007    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2009        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2010        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2011
2012    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2015        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2016        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2017
2018    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2019        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2020        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2021
2022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2023
2024    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2025        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2026
2027    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2028        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2029
2030    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2033            this = self.wrap(this)
2034        return f"ANY {this}"
2035
2036    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2037        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2038
2039    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2042
2043        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2044            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2045            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2046
2047        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2048
2049        if default:
2050            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2051
2052        statements.append("END")
2053
2054        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2055            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2056
2057        return " ".join(statements)
2058
2059    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2062        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2063
2064    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2065        order = expression.args.get("order")
2066        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2067        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2068
2069    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2071        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2072        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2073
2074    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2075        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2076
2077        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2078            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2079        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2080            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2081        else:
2082            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2083
2084    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2085        expressions = expression.expressions
2086        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2087            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2088        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2089
2090    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2092        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2093
2094    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2095        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2096        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2097        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2098        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2099        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2100        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2101        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2102        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2103
2104    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2108        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2109
2110    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2111        expression = expression.copy()
2112        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2113
2114    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2115        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2116        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2117        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2118
2119    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2121
2122    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2124
2125    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2126        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2127        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2128        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2129        if unique_keys is not None:
2130            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2131        else:
2132            unique_keys = ""
2133        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2134        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2135        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2136        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2137        return self.func(
2138            "JSON_OBJECT",
2139            *expression.expressions,
2140            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2141        )
2142
2143    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2144        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2145        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2146        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2147        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2148        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2149        return self.func(
2150            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2151        )
2152
2153    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2155        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2156        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2157        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2158        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2159        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2160        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2161        return self.func(
2162            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2163            this,
2164            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2165        )
2166
2167    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2170        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2171        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2172        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2173        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2174
2175    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2178        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2179        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2180        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2181        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2182        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2183        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2184        return self.func(
2185            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2186        )
2187
2188    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2191        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2192        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2193        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2194        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2195
2196    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2198        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2199        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2201        with_ = (
2202            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2203            if expressions
2204            else ""
2205        )
2206        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2207
2208    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2209        query = expression.args.get("query")
2210        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2211        field = expression.args.get("field")
2212        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2213
2214        if query:
2215            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2216        elif unnest:
2217            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2218        elif field:
2219            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2220        else:
2221            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2222
2223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2224
2225    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2226        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2227
2228    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2229        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2230        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2231            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2232        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2233
2234        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2235            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2236            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2237
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        if this:
2240            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2241            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2242
2243        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2244
2245    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2246        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2247
2248    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2251        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2252        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2253        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2254        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2255
2256    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2257        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2258
2259    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2260        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2261            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2262        else:
2263            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2264            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2265
2266        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2267
2268    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2269        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2270        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2272        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2273
2274    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2275        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2276
2277    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2278        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2279        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2280        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2281
2282    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2284
2285    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2288        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2289
2290    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2292
2293    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2294        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2295
2296    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2297        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2298
2299    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2300        if not self.pretty:
2301            return self.binary(expression, op)
2302
2303        sqls = tuple(
2304            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2305            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2306        )
2307
2308        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2309        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2310
2311    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2313
2314    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2316
2317    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2318        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2319
2320    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2322
2323    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2325
2326    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2328
2329    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2330        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2331        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2332        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2333
2334    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2335        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2336        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2337
2338    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2339        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2340            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2341        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2342
2343    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2344        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2345
2346    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2348        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2349        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2350        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2351        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2352
2353    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2356        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2357        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2358        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2359        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2360        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2361        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2362        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2363
2364    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2365        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2366        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2367        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2368        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2369
2370        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2371            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2372
2373        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2374
2375    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2376        return "BEGIN"
2377
2378    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2379        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2380        if chain is not None:
2381            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2382
2383        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2384
2385    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2386        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2387        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2388        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2389
2390    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392
2393        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2394        if dtype:
2395            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2396            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2397            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2398            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2399            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2400
2401        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2402        if default:
2403            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2404
2405        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2406            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2407
2408        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2409
2410    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2411        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2412            # Remove db from tables
2413            expression = expression.transform(
2414                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2415            )
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2418
2419    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2420        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2421
2422        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2423            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2424                actions = self.expressions(
2425                    expression,
2426                    key="actions",
2427                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2428                )
2429            else:
2430                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2431        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2432            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2433        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2434            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2435        else:
2436            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2437
2438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2439        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2440        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2441
2442    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2443        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2444        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2445        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2446
2447    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2450        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2451
2452        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2453        if enforced is not None:
2454            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2455
2456        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2457
2458    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2459        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2460        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2461
2462        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2463        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2464        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2465
2466    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2468
2469    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2470        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2471
2472    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2473        return self.sql(
2474            exp.Cast(
2475                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2476                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2477            )
2478        )
2479
2480    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2481        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2482
2483    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2484        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2485            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2486        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2487
2488    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2490
2491    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2492        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2493
2494    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2495        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2496
2497    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2498        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2499
2500    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2501        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2502
2503    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2504        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2505
2506    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2507        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2508
2509    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2510        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2511
2512    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2513        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2514
2515    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2516        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2517
2518    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2519        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2520
2521    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2522        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2523            return self.sql(
2524                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2525            )
2526        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2527
2528    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2529        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2530
2531    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2532        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2533
2534    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2535        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2536
2537    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2539
2540    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2541        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2542
2543    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2544        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2545
2546    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2547        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2548
2549    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2550        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2551
2552    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2553        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2554
2555    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2556        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2557
2558    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2559        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2560
2561    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2562        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2563
2564    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2565        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2566
2567    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2568        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2569
2570    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2571        args = list(expression.args.values())
2572        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2573            args.reverse()
2574        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2575
2576    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2578        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2581        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2582
2583    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2584        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2585        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2586
2587    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2588        args = []
2589
2590        for key in expression.arg_types:
2591            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2592
2593            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2594                for value in arg_value:
2595                    args.append(value)
2596            elif arg_value is not None:
2597                args.append(arg_value)
2598
2599        if self.normalize_functions:
2600            name = expression.sql_name()
2601        else:
2602            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2603
2604        return self.func(name, *args)
2605
2606    def func(
2607        self,
2608        name: str,
2609        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2610        prefix: str = "(",
2611        suffix: str = ")",
2612    ) -> str:
2613        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2614
2615    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2616        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2617        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2618            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2619        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2620
2621    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2622        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2623
2624    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2625        return format_time(
2626            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2627        )
2628
2629    def expressions(
2630        self,
2631        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2632        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2633        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2634        flat: bool = False,
2635        indent: bool = True,
2636        skip_first: bool = False,
2637        sep: str = ", ",
2638        prefix: str = "",
2639    ) -> str:
2640        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2641
2642        if not expressions:
2643            return ""
2644
2645        if flat:
2646            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2647
2648        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2649
2650        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2651        pad = " " * self.pad
2652        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2653
2654        result_sqls = []
2655        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2656            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2657            if not sql:
2658                continue
2659
2660            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2661
2662            if self.pretty:
2663                if self.leading_comma:
2664                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2665                else:
2666                    result_sqls.append(
2667                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2668                    )
2669            else:
2670                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2671
2672        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2673        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2674
2675    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2676        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2677        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2678        if flat:
2679            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2680        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2681
2682    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2683        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2684        if not property_name:
2685            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2686        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2687
2688    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        op = self.seg(op)
2691        return self.query_modifiers(
2692            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2693        )
2694
2695    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2696        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2697
2698    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2699        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2700
2701    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2703        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2704        expressions = (
2705            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2706        )
2707        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2708
2709    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2712        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2713
2714    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2716
2717    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2718        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2719        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2720        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2721        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2722
2723        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2724        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2725            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2726            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2727                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2728        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2729            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2730                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2731            else:
2732                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2733        else:
2734            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2735        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2736
2737    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2738        table = expression.this
2739        table_alias = ""
2740
2741        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2742        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2743            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2744            table = table.copy()
2745            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2746
2747        this = self.sql(table)
2748        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2749        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2751
2752        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2753
2754    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2755        if expression.args.get("format"):
2756            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2757
2758        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2759
2760    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2763        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2764        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2765        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2766
2767    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2770        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2771        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2772
2773    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2775
2776    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2777        return ""
2778
2779    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2780        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2781        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2782        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2783        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2784        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2785
2786    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2789
2790        if having:
2791            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2792
2793        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2794
2795    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2796        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2797        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2798        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2799        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2800        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2801        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2802        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2803        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2804        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2805        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2806        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2807        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2808        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2809
2810    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2811        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2812        if key_block_size:
2813            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2814
2815        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2816        if using:
2817            return f"USING {using}"
2818
2819        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2820        if parser:
2821            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2822
2823        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2824        if comment:
2825            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2826
2827        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2828        if visible is not None:
2829            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2830
2831        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2832        if engine_attr:
2833            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2834
2835        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2836        if secondary_engine_attr:
2837            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2838
2839        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2840        return ""
2841
2842    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2843        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2844        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2846        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2847        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2848        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2849        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2850        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2851        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2852        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2853        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2854
2855    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2856        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2857            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2858
2859        case = exp.Case().when(
2860            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2861            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2862            copy=False,
2863        )
2864        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2865        if else_cond:
2866            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2867
2868        return self.sql(case)
2869
2870    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2873        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2874        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2875        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2876        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2877
2878    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2880
2881    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2882        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
394    def __init__(
395        self,
396        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
397        identify: str | bool = False,
398        normalize: bool = False,
399        pad: int = 2,
400        indent: int = 2,
401        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
402        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
403        max_unsupported: int = 3,
404        leading_comma: bool = False,
405        max_text_width: int = 80,
406        comments: bool = True,
407    ):
408        import sqlglot
409
410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
411        self.identify = identify
412        self.normalize = normalize
413        self.pad = pad
414        self._indent = indent
415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
419        self.comments = comments
420
421        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
422        self.normalize_functions = (
423            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
424        )
425
426        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
427        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
428        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
429            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
430        )
431        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
279    @classmethod
280    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
281        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
282
283        Args:
284            text: The text to check.
285            identify:
286                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
287                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
288
289        Returns:
290            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
291        """
292        if identify is True or identify == "always":
293            return True
294
295        if identify == "safe":
296            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
297
298        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
433    def generate(
434        self,
435        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
436        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
437    ) -> str:
438        """
439        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
440
441        Args:
442            expression: The syntax tree.
443            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
444                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
445
446        Returns:
447            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
448        """
449        if cache is not None:
450            self._cache = cache
451
452        self.unsupported_messages = []
453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
454        self._cache = None
455
456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
457            return sql
458
459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
461                logger.warning(msg)
462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
464
465        if self.pretty:
466            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
467        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
469    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
470        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
471            raise UnsupportedError(message)
472        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
474    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
475        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
477    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
478        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
480    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
481        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
482        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
483        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
485    def maybe_comment(
486        self,
487        sql: str,
488        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
489        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
490    ) -> str:
491        comments = (
492            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
493            if self.comments
494            else None
495        )
496
497        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
498            return sql
499
500        comments_sql = " ".join(
501            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
502        )
503
504        if not comments_sql:
505            return sql
506
507        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
508            return (
509                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
510                if sql[0].isspace()
511                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
512            )
513
514        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
516    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
517        this_sql = self.indent(
518            self.sql(expression)
519            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
520            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
521            level=1,
522            pad=0,
523        )
524        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
526    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
527        original = self.identify
528        self.identify = False
529        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
530        self.identify = original
531        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
533    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
534        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
535            return name.upper()
536        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
537            return name.lower()
538        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
540    def indent(
541        self,
542        sql: str,
543        level: int = 0,
544        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
545        skip_first: bool = False,
546        skip_last: bool = False,
547    ) -> str:
548        if not self.pretty:
549            return sql
550
551        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
552        lines = sql.split("\n")
553
554        return "\n".join(
555            line
556            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
557            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
558            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
559        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
561    def sql(
562        self,
563        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
564        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
565        comment: bool = True,
566    ) -> str:
567        if not expression:
568            return ""
569
570        if isinstance(expression, str):
571            return expression
572
573        if key:
574            value = expression.args.get(key)
575            if value:
576                return self.sql(value)
577            return ""
578
579        if self._cache is not None:
580            expression_id = hash(expression)
581
582            if expression_id in self._cache:
583                return self._cache[expression_id]
584
585        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
586
587        if callable(transform):
588            sql = transform(self, expression)
589        elif transform:
590            sql = transform
591        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
592            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
593
594            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
595                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
596            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
597                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
598            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
599                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
600            else:
601                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
602        else:
603            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
604
605        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
606
607        if self._cache is not None:
608            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
609        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
611    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
612        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
613        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
614        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
616    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
617        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
619        options = expression.args.get("options")
620        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
621        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
622        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
623        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
626    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
627        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
628            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
629        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
630        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
632    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
633        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
634
635        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
636            join_mark = ""
637            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
638
639        column = ".".join(
640            self.sql(part)
641            for part in (
642                expression.args.get("catalog"),
643                expression.args.get("db"),
644                expression.args.get("table"),
645                expression.args.get("this"),
646            )
647            if part
648        )
649
650        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
652    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
655        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
656        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
658    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
659        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
661        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
662        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
663        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
664        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
665        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
666        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
667
668        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
669            kind = ""
670
671        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
673    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
675        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
676        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
678    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
680        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
681            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
682        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
683            persisted = " PERSISTED"
684        else:
685            persisted = ""
686        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
688    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
689        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
691    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
693            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
694        else:
695            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
696
697        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
699    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
700        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
701    ) -> str:
702        this = ""
703        if expression.this is not None:
704            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
705            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
706
707        start = expression.args.get("start")
708        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
709        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
710        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
711        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
712        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
713        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
714        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
715        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
716        cycle_sql = ""
717
718        if cycle is not None:
719            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
720            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
721
722        sequence_opts = ""
723        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
724            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
725            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
726
727        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
728        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
729
730        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
732    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
733        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
735    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
736        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
737        if desc is not None:
738            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
739        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
741    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
743        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
744        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
745        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
746        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
748    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
749        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
751    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
753        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
754        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
755
756        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
757
758        properties_sql = ""
759        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
760            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
761        ):
762            properties_sql = self.sql(
763                exp.Properties(
764                    expressions=[
765                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
766                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
767                    ]
768                )
769            )
770
771        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
772        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
773
774        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
775        if expression_sql:
776            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
777
778            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
779                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
780                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
781                        exp.Properties(
782                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
783                        ),
784                        wrapped=False,
785                    )
786                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
787                else:
788                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
789
790        postindex_props_sql = ""
791        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
792            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
793                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
794                wrapped=False,
795                prefix=" ",
796            )
797
798        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
799        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
800        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
801
802        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
803        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
804
805        postcreate_props_sql = ""
806        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
807            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
808                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
809                sep=" ",
810                prefix=" ",
811                wrapped=False,
812            )
813
814        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
815
816        postexpression_props_sql = ""
817        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
818            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
819                exp.Properties(
820                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
821                ),
822                sep=" ",
823                prefix=" ",
824                wrapped=False,
825            )
826
827        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
828        no_schema_binding = (
829            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
830        )
831
832        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
833        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
834
835        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
838    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
840        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
841        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
842        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
843        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
844
845        if when:
846            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
847            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
848            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
849
850        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
852    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
853        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
855    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
856        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
857        if with_:
858            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
859        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
861    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
862        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
863        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
864
865        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
867    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
869        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
871    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
872        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
873        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
874        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
875        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
877    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
879        if self.BIT_START:
880            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
881        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
883    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
885        if self.HEX_START:
886            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
887        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
889    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
891        if self.BYTE_START:
892            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
893        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
895    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
896        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
897        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
899    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
901        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
902        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
903        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
905    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
906        type_value = expression.this
907
908        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
909            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
910        else:
911            type_sql = (
912                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
913                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
914                else type_value
915            )
916
917        nested = ""
918        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
919        values = ""
920
921        if interior:
922            if expression.args.get("nested"):
923                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
924                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
925                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
926                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
927                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
928            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
929                nested = f" {interior}"
930            else:
931                nested = f"({interior})"
932
933        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
934        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
935            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
936            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
937        ):
938            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
939
940        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
942    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
943        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
944        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
945        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
946        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
948    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
950        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
952        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
953        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
954        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
955        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
956        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
957        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
958        if self.RETURNING_END:
959            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
960        else:
961            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
962        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
964    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
966        kind = expression.args["kind"]
967        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
968        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
969        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
970        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
971        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
972        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
973        return (
974            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
975        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
977    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
978        return self.prepend_ctes(
979            expression,
980            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
981        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
983    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
984        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
986    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
987        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
988        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
989        count = expression.args.get("count")
990        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
991        if expression.args.get("percent"):
992            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
993        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
994        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
 996    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 997        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 998            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 999            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1000            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1001
1002        agg = expression.this.copy()
1003        agg_arg = agg.this
1004        cond = expression.expression.this
1005        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1006        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1008    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1009        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1010            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1011            return ""
1012
1013        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1015    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1016        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1017        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1018        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1019        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1021        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1022        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1023        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1024        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1025        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1026        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1027        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1028        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1029        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1030        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1031        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1033    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1034        text = expression.name
1035        lower = text.lower()
1036        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1037        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1038        if (
1039            expression.quoted
1040            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1041            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1042            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1043        ):
1044            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1045        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1047    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1048        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1049        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1050        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1051        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1052        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1054    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1055        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1056        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1058    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1059        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1061    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1062        root_properties = []
1063        with_properties = []
1064
1065        for p in expression.expressions:
1066            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1067            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1068                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1069            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1070                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1071
1072        return self.root_properties(
1073            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1074        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1076    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1077        if properties.expressions:
1078            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1079        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1081    def properties(
1082        self,
1083        properties: exp.Properties,
1084        prefix: str = "",
1085        sep: str = ", ",
1086        suffix: str = "",
1087        wrapped: bool = True,
1088    ) -> str:
1089        if properties.expressions:
1090            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1091            if expressions:
1092                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1093                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1094        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1096    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1097        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1099    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1100        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1101        for p in properties.expressions:
1102            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1103            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1104                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1105            else:
1106                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1107
1108        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1110    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1111        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1112            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1115    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1116        property_cls = expression.__class__
1117        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1118            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1119
1120        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1121        if not property_name:
1122            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1123
1124        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1126    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1127        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1128        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1129        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1131    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1132        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1133        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1134        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1136    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1137        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1138        local = expression.args.get("local")
1139        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1140        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1141        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1142        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1143        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1145    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1146        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1148        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1150    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1151        if expression.args.get("default"):
1152            property = "DEFAULT"
1153        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1154            property = "ON"
1155        else:
1156            property = "OFF"
1157        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1159    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1160        if expression.args.get("no"):
1161            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1162        if expression.args.get("default"):
1163            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1164
1165        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1166        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1168    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1169        default = expression.args.get("default")
1170        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1171        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1172        if default or minimum or maximum:
1173            if default:
1174                prop = "DEFAULT"
1175            elif minimum:
1176                prop = "MINIMUM"
1177            else:
1178                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1179            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1180        units = expression.args.get("units")
1181        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1182        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1184    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1185        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1186        always = expression.args.get("always")
1187        default = expression.args.get("default")
1188        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1189        never = expression.args.get("never")
1190
1191        if autotemp is not None:
1192            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1193        elif always:
1194            prop = "ALWAYS"
1195        elif default:
1196            prop = "DEFAULT"
1197        elif manual:
1198            prop = "MANUAL"
1199        elif never:
1200            prop = "NEVER"
1201        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1203    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1204        no = expression.args.get("no")
1205        no = " NO" if no else ""
1206        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1207        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1208
1209        for_ = ""
1210        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1211            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1212        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1213            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1214        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1215            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1216        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1218    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1219        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1220        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1221        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1222        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1223        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1224        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1226    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1227        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1228        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1229        statistics_sql = ""
1230        if statistics is not None:
1231            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1232        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1234    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1235        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1236
1237        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1238            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1239        else:
1240            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1241
1242        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1243        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1244        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1245
1246        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1247
1248        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1249        partition_sql = (
1250            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1251        )
1252        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1253        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1254        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1255        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1256        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1257        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1258
1259        if self.RETURNING_END:
1260            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1261        else:
1262            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1263
1264        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1265        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1267    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1268        return self.prepend_ctes(
1269            expression,
1270            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1271        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1273    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1274        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1276    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1277        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1279    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1280        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1281        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1284        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1286    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1287        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1289    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1290        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1292    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1293        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1294        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1295        if constraint:
1296            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1297        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1298        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1299        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1300        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1301        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1302        if expressions:
1303            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1304        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1306    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1307        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1309    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1310        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1311        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1312        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1313        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1314        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1315        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1316        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1317        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1318        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1319        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1320        null = expression.args.get("null")
1321        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1322        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1324    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1325        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1327    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1328        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1329        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1330        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1331        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1333    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1334        table = ".".join(
1335            part
1336            for part in [
1337                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1338                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1339                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1340            ]
1341            if part
1342        )
1343
1344        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1345        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1346        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1347        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1348        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1349        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1350        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1351        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1352        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1353        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1354        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1355        if file_format:
1356            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1357            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1358            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1359
1360        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1362    def tablesample_sql(
1363        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1364    ) -> str:
1365        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1366            table = expression.this.copy()
1367            table.set("alias", None)
1368            this = self.sql(table)
1369            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1370        else:
1371            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1372            alias = ""
1373
1374        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1375        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1376        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1377        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1378        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1379        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1380        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1381        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1382        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1383        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1384        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1385
1386        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1387        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1388            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1389
1390        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1391        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1392        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1393
1394        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1395        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1396            expr = f"({expr})"
1397
1398        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1400    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1402
1403        if expression.this:
1404            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1405            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1406            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1407            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1408            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1409            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1410
1411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1412        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1413        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1414        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1415        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1416        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1417        if include_nulls is not None:
1418            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1419        else:
1420            nulls = ""
1421        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1423    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1424        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1425        kind = expression.text("kind")
1426        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1427        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1429    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1430        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1432    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1435        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1436        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1437        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1438        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1439        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1440        if self.RETURNING_END:
1441            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1442        else:
1443            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1444        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1445        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1447    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1448        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1449        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1450            args = self.expressions(expression)
1451            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1452            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1453            values = (
1454                f"({values})"
1455                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1456                else values
1457            )
1458            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1459
1460        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1461        expression = expression.copy()
1462        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1463        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1464
1465        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1466
1467        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1468            row = tup.expressions
1469
1470            if i == 0 and column_names:
1471                row = [
1472                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1473                ]
1474
1475            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1476
1477        if self.pretty:
1478            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1479            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1480            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1481            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1482            return self.subquery_sql(
1483                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1484            )
1485
1486        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1487        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1488        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1490    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1491        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1493    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1494        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1495        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1496        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1498    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1499        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1501    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1502        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1503
1504        if expression.args.get("all"):
1505            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1506
1507        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1508        grouping_sets = (
1509            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1510        )
1511
1512        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1513        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1514            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1515        else:
1516            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1517            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1518
1519        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1520        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1521            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1522        else:
1523            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1524            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1525
1526        groupings = csv(
1527            grouping_sets,
1528            cube_sql,
1529            rollup_sql,
1530            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1531            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1532        )
1533
1534        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1535            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1536
1537        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1539    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1540        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1541        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1543    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1544        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1545        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1546        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1547        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1548        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1550    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1551        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1553    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1554        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1555            side = None
1556        else:
1557            side = expression.side
1558
1559        op_sql = " ".join(
1560            op
1561            for op in (
1562                expression.method,
1563                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1564                side,
1565                expression.kind,
1566                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1567            )
1568            if op
1569        )
1570        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1571        using = expression.args.get("using")
1572
1573        if not on_sql and using:
1574            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1575
1576        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577
1578        if on_sql:
1579            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1580            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1581            if using:
1582                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1583            else:
1584                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1585        elif not op_sql:
1586            return f", {this_sql}"
1587
1588        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1589        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1591    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1592        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1593        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1594        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1596    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1598
1599        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1600            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1601
1602        if expression.args.get("view"):
1603            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1604            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1605            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1606            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1607            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1608            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1609
1610        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1611        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1612        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1614    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        args = ", ".join(
1617            sql
1618            for sql in (
1619                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1620                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1621            )
1622            if sql
1623        )
1624        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1626    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1628        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1630    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1631        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1632        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1634        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1635        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1636        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1637        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1638        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1640    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1641        expressions = (
1642            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1643        )
1644        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1645        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1647    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1648        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1650    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1651        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1652            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1653            return ""
1654
1655        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1656        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1657        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1658        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1659
1660        if wait is not None:
1661            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1662                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1663            else:
1664                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1665
1666        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1668    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1669        text = expression.this or ""
1670        if expression.is_string:
1671            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1672        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1674    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1675        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1676        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1677            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1678        elif self.pretty:
1679            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1680        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1682    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1683        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1684        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1685        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1686        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1687        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1688        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1689        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1690        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1691        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1692        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1693        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1695    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1696        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1698    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1699        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1701    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1704        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1706    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1707        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1709    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1710        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1712    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1713        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1715    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1716        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1717        asc = not desc
1718
1719        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1720        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1721        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1722        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1723        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1724
1725        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1726        nulls_sort_change = ""
1727        if nulls_first and (
1728            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1729        ):
1730            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1731        elif (
1732            nulls_last
1733            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1734            and not nulls_are_last
1735        ):
1736            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1737
1738        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1739            self.unsupported(
1740                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1741            )
1742            nulls_sort_change = ""
1743
1744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1746    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1747        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1748        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1749        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1750        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1751        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1752        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1753        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1754        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1755        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1756        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1757        definition_sqls = [
1758            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1759            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1760        ]
1761        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1762        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1763        body = "".join(
1764            (
1765                partition,
1766                order,
1767                measures,
1768                rows,
1769                after,
1770                pattern,
1771                define,
1772            )
1773        )
1774        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1775        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1776        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1778    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1779        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1780
1781        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1782        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1783
1784        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1785            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1786        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1787            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1788
1789        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1790
1791        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1792            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1793            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1794            else []
1795        )
1796
1797        return csv(
1798            *sqls,
1799            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1800            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1801            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1802            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1803            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1804            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1805            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1806            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1807            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1808            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1809            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1810            sep="",
1811        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1813    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1814        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1815    ) -> t.List[str]:
1816        return [
1817            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1818            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1819        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1821    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1822        return [
1823            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1824            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1825            if expression.args.get("windows")
1826            else "",
1827            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1828            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1829            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1830        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1832    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1833        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1834        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1835        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1837    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1838        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1839        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1840        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1841        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1842        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1843        top = (
1844            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1845            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1846            else ""
1847        )
1848
1849        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1850
1851        if kind:
1852            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1853                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1854            else:
1855                if kind == "STRUCT":
1856                    expressions = self.expressions(
1857                        sqls=[
1858                            self.sql(
1859                                exp.Struct(
1860                                    expressions=[
1861                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1862                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1863                                        )
1864                                        for e in expression.expressions
1865                                    ]
1866                                )
1867                            )
1868                        ]
1869                    )
1870                kind = ""
1871
1872        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1873        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1874            expression,
1875            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1876            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1877            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1878        )
1879        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1881    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1884        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1885        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1887    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1888        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1890    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1891        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1892        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1893        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1894        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1895        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1897    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1901    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        kind = expression.text("kind")
1904        if kind:
1905            kind = f"{kind}."
1906        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1908    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1909        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1911    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1912        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1913        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1914
1915        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1916        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1917
1918        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1919        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1921    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1922        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1923        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1925    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1926        return self.prepend_ctes(
1927            expression,
1928            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1929        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1931    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1932        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1933        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1934        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1935        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1937    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1938        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1939
1940        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1941        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1942
1943        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1944            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1945                alias = alias.copy()
1946                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1947
1948        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1949            columns = alias.columns
1950            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1951        else:
1952            alias = self.sql(alias)
1953
1954        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1955        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1956            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1957        else:
1958            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1959                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1960            elif offset:
1961                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1962            else:
1963                suffix = alias
1964
1965        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1967    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1968        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1969        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1971    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1974        order = expression.args.get("order")
1975        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1976        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1977        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1978        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1979
1980        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1981
1982        first = expression.args.get("first")
1983        if first is None:
1984            first = ""
1985        else:
1986            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1987
1988        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1989            return f"{this} {alias}"
1990
1991        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1992        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1994    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1995        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1996        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1998    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1999        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2000        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2001        end = (
2002            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2003            or "CURRENT ROW"
2004        )
2005        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2007    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2009        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2010        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2012    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2015        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2016        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2018    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2019        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2020        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2021
2022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2024    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2025        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2027    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2028        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2030    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2033            this = self.wrap(this)
2034        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2036    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2037        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2039    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2042
2043        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2044            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2045            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2046
2047        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2048
2049        if default:
2050            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2051
2052        statements.append("END")
2053
2054        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2055            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2056
2057        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2059    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2062        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2064    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2065        order = expression.args.get("order")
2066        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2067        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2069    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2071        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2072        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2074    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2075        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2076
2077        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2078            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2079        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2080            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2081        else:
2082            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2084    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2085        expressions = expression.expressions
2086        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2087            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2088        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2090    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2092        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2094    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2095        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2096        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2097        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2098        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2099        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2100        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2101        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2102        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2104    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2108        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2110    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2111        expression = expression.copy()
2112        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2114    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2115        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2116        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2117        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2119    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2122    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2125    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2126        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2127        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2128        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2129        if unique_keys is not None:
2130            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2131        else:
2132            unique_keys = ""
2133        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2134        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2135        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2136        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2137        return self.func(
2138            "JSON_OBJECT",
2139            *expression.expressions,
2140            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2141        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2143    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2144        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2145        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2146        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2147        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2148        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2149        return self.func(
2150            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2151        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2153    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2155        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2156        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2157        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2158        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2159        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2160        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2161        return self.func(
2162            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2163            this,
2164            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2165        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2167    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2170        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2171        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2172        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2173        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2175    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2178        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2179        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2180        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2181        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2182        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2183        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2184        return self.func(
2185            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2186        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2188    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2191        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2192        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2193        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2194        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2196    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2198        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2199        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2201        with_ = (
2202            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2203            if expressions
2204            else ""
2205        )
2206        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2208    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2209        query = expression.args.get("query")
2210        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2211        field = expression.args.get("field")
2212        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2213
2214        if query:
2215            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2216        elif unnest:
2217            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2218        elif field:
2219            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2220        else:
2221            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2222
2223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2225    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2226        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2228    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2229        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2230        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2231            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2232        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2233
2234        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2235            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2236            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2237
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        if this:
2240            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2241            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2242
2243        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2245    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2246        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2248    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2251        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2252        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2253        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2254        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2256    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2257        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2259    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2260        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2261            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2262        else:
2263            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2264            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2265
2266        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2268    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2269        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2270        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2272        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2274    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2275        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2277    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2278        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2279        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2280        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2282    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2285    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2288        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2290    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2293    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2294        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2296    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2297        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2299    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2300        if not self.pretty:
2301            return self.binary(expression, op)
2302
2303        sqls = tuple(
2304            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2305            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2306        )
2307
2308        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2309        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2311    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2314    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2317    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2318        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2320    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2323    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2326    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2329    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2330        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2331        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2332        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2334    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2335        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2336        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2338    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2339        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2340            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2341        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2343    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2344        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2346    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2348        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2349        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2350        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2351        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2353    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2356        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2357        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2358        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2359        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2360        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2361        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2362        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2364    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2365        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2366        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2367        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2368        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2369
2370        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2371            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2372
2373        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2375    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2376        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2378    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2379        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2380        if chain is not None:
2381            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2382
2383        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2385    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2386        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2387        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2388        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2390    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392
2393        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2394        if dtype:
2395            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2396            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2397            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2398            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2399            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2400
2401        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2402        if default:
2403            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2404
2405        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2406            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2407
2408        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2410    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2411        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2412            # Remove db from tables
2413            expression = expression.transform(
2414                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2415            )
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2419    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2420        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2421
2422        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2423            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2424                actions = self.expressions(
2425                    expression,
2426                    key="actions",
2427                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2428                )
2429            else:
2430                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2431        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2432            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2433        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2434            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2435        else:
2436            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2437
2438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2439        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2440        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2442    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2443        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2444        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2445        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2447    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2450        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2451
2452        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2453        if enforced is not None:
2454            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2455
2456        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2458    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2459        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2460        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2461
2462        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2463        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2464        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2466    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2469    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2470        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2472    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2473        return self.sql(
2474            exp.Cast(
2475                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2476                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2477            )
2478        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2480    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2481        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2483    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2484        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2485            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2486        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2488    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2491    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2492        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2494    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2495        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2497    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2498        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2500    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2501        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2503    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2504        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2506    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2507        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2509    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2510        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2512    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2513        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2515    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2516        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2518    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2519        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2521    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2522        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2523            return self.sql(
2524                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2525            )
2526        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2528    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2529        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2531    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2532        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2534    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2535        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2537    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2540    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2541        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2543    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2544        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2546    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2547        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2549    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2550        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2552    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2553        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2555    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2556        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2558    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2559        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2561    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2562        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2564    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2565        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2567    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2568        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2570    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2571        args = list(expression.args.values())
2572        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2573            args.reverse()
2574        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2576    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2578        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2581        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2583    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2584        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2585        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2587    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2588        args = []
2589
2590        for key in expression.arg_types:
2591            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2592
2593            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2594                for value in arg_value:
2595                    args.append(value)
2596            elif arg_value is not None:
2597                args.append(arg_value)
2598
2599        if self.normalize_functions:
2600            name = expression.sql_name()
2601        else:
2602            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2603
2604        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2606    def func(
2607        self,
2608        name: str,
2609        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2610        prefix: str = "(",
2611        suffix: str = ")",
2612    ) -> str:
2613        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2615    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2616        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2617        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2618            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2619        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2621    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2622        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2624    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2625        return format_time(
2626            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2627        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2629    def expressions(
2630        self,
2631        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2632        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2633        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2634        flat: bool = False,
2635        indent: bool = True,
2636        skip_first: bool = False,
2637        sep: str = ", ",
2638        prefix: str = "",
2639    ) -> str:
2640        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2641
2642        if not expressions:
2643            return ""
2644
2645        if flat:
2646            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2647
2648        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2649
2650        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2651        pad = " " * self.pad
2652        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2653
2654        result_sqls = []
2655        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2656            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2657            if not sql:
2658                continue
2659
2660            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2661
2662            if self.pretty:
2663                if self.leading_comma:
2664                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2665                else:
2666                    result_sqls.append(
2667                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2668                    )
2669            else:
2670                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2671
2672        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2673        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2675    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2676        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2677        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2678        if flat:
2679            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2680        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2682    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2683        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2684        if not property_name:
2685            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2686        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2688    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        op = self.seg(op)
2691        return self.query_modifiers(
2692            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2693        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2695    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2696        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2698    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2699        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2701    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2703        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2704        expressions = (
2705            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2706        )
2707        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2709    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2712        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2714    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2717    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2718        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2719        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2720        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2721        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2722
2723        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2724        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2725            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2726            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2727                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2728        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2729            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2730                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2731            else:
2732                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2733        else:
2734            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2735        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2737    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2738        table = expression.this
2739        table_alias = ""
2740
2741        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2742        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2743            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2744            table = table.copy()
2745            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2746
2747        this = self.sql(table)
2748        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2749        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2751
2752        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2754    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2755        if expression.args.get("format"):
2756            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2757
2758        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2760    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2763        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2764        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2765        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2767    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2770        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2771        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2773    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2776    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2777        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2779    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2780        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2781        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2782        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2783        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2784        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2786    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2789
2790        if having:
2791            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2792
2793        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2795    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2796        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2797        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2798        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2799        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2800        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2801        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2802        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2803        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2804        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2805        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2806        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2807        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2808        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2810    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2811        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2812        if key_block_size:
2813            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2814
2815        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2816        if using:
2817            return f"USING {using}"
2818
2819        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2820        if parser:
2821            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2822
2823        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2824        if comment:
2825            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2826
2827        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2828        if visible is not None:
2829            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2830
2831        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2832        if engine_attr:
2833            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2834
2835        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2836        if secondary_engine_attr:
2837            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2838
2839        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2840        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2842    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2843        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2844        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2846        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2847        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2848        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2849        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2850        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2851        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2852        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2853        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2855    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2856        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2857            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2858
2859        case = exp.Case().when(
2860            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2861            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2862            copy=False,
2863        )
2864        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2865        if else_cond:
2866            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2867
2868        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2870    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2873        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2874        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2875        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2876        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2878    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
2881    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2882        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2885def cached_generator(
2886    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2887) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2888    """Returns a cached generator."""
2889    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2890    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2891    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.