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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  62            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  63        ),
  64        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  65        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  68        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  69        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  71        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  77        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  78        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  81        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  84        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  85        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  86        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  88        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  89        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  97        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  98        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  99        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 100        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 101        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 102        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 103        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 104        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 106        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 107        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 108        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109    }
 110
 111    # Whether the base comes first
 112    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 139    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 142    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 145    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 146
 147    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 148    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 149
 150    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 151    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 152
 153    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 154    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 155
 156    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 157    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 158
 159    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 160    JOIN_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 163    TABLE_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 166    QUERY_HINTS = True
 167
 168    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 169    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 170
 171    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 172    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 175    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 178    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 181    RETURNING_END = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 184    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 187    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 190    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 191
 192    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 193    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 194
 195    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 196    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 197
 198    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 199    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 200    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 201    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 204    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 205
 206    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 207    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 210    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 213    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 216    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 219    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 222    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 225    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 226
 227    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 228    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 231    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 234    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 235
 236    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 237    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 238
 239    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 240        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 249    }
 250
 251    STAR_MAPPING = {
 252        "except": "EXCEPT",
 253        "replace": "REPLACE",
 254    }
 255
 256    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 257        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 258        "seconds": "second",
 259        "minutes": "minute",
 260        "hours": "hour",
 261        "days": "day",
 262        "weeks": "week",
 263        "months": "month",
 264        "quarters": "quarter",
 265        "years": "year",
 266    }
 267
 268    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 269
 270    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 271
 272    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 273
 274    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 275        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 285        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 286        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 293        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 295        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 296        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 297        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 299        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 304        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 306        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 307        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 308        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 310        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 313        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 316        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 327        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 331        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 333        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 337        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 338        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339    }
 340
 341    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 342    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 343
 344    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 345    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 346        exp.Create,
 347        exp.Delete,
 348        exp.Drop,
 349        exp.From,
 350        exp.Insert,
 351        exp.Join,
 352        exp.Select,
 353        exp.Update,
 354        exp.Where,
 355        exp.With,
 356    )
 357
 358    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 359    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 360        exp.Binary,
 361        exp.Union,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 365    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 366        exp.Column,
 367        exp.Literal,
 368        exp.Neg,
 369        exp.Paren,
 370    )
 371
 372    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 373
 374    # Autofilled
 375    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 376    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 377    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 378    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 379    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 380    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 381    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 382    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 383    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 384    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 385
 386    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 387
 388    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 389    QUOTE_START = "'"
 390    QUOTE_END = "'"
 391    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 392    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 393    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 394
 395    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 396    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 397    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 398    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 399    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 400    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 401    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 402
 403    __slots__ = (
 404        "pretty",
 405        "identify",
 406        "normalize",
 407        "pad",
 408        "_indent",
 409        "normalize_functions",
 410        "unsupported_level",
 411        "max_unsupported",
 412        "leading_comma",
 413        "max_text_width",
 414        "comments",
 415        "unsupported_messages",
 416        "_escaped_quote_end",
 417        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 418    )
 419
 420    def __init__(
 421        self,
 422        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 423        identify: str | bool = False,
 424        normalize: bool = False,
 425        pad: int = 2,
 426        indent: int = 2,
 427        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 428        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 429        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 430        leading_comma: bool = False,
 431        max_text_width: int = 80,
 432        comments: bool = True,
 433    ):
 434        import sqlglot
 435
 436        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 437        self.identify = identify
 438        self.normalize = normalize
 439        self.pad = pad
 440        self._indent = indent
 441        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 442        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 443        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 444        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 445        self.comments = comments
 446
 447        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 448        self.normalize_functions = (
 449            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 450        )
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 453        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 454        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 455            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 456        )
 457
 458    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 459        """
 460        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 461
 462        Args:
 463            expression: The syntax tree.
 464            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 465                it is safer to copy.
 466
 467        Returns:
 468            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 469        """
 470        if copy:
 471            expression = expression.copy()
 472
 473        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 474        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 475        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 476        if (
 477            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 478            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 479            and not expression.parent
 480            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 481            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 482        ):
 483            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 484
 485            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 486
 487        self.unsupported_messages = []
 488        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 489
 490        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 491            return sql
 492
 493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 494            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 495                logger.warning(msg)
 496        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 497            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 498
 499        if self.pretty:
 500            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 501        return sql
 502
 503    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 504        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 505            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 506        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 507
 508    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 509        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 510
 511    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 512        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 513
 514    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 515        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 516        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 517        return comment
 518
 519    def maybe_comment(
 520        self,
 521        sql: str,
 522        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 523        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 524    ) -> str:
 525        comments = (
 526            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 527            if self.comments
 528            else None
 529        )
 530
 531        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 532            return sql
 533
 534        comments_sql = " ".join(
 535            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 536        )
 537
 538        if not comments_sql:
 539            return sql
 540
 541        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 542            return (
 543                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 544                if sql[0].isspace()
 545                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 546            )
 547
 548        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 549
 550    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 551        this_sql = self.indent(
 552            self.sql(expression)
 553            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 554            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 555            level=1,
 556            pad=0,
 557        )
 558        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 559
 560    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 561        original = self.identify
 562        self.identify = False
 563        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 564        self.identify = original
 565        return result
 566
 567    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 568        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 569            return name.upper()
 570        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 571            return name.lower()
 572        return name
 573
 574    def indent(
 575        self,
 576        sql: str,
 577        level: int = 0,
 578        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 579        skip_first: bool = False,
 580        skip_last: bool = False,
 581    ) -> str:
 582        if not self.pretty:
 583            return sql
 584
 585        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 586        lines = sql.split("\n")
 587
 588        return "\n".join(
 589            line
 590            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 591            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 592            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 593        )
 594
 595    def sql(
 596        self,
 597        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 598        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 599        comment: bool = True,
 600    ) -> str:
 601        if not expression:
 602            return ""
 603
 604        if isinstance(expression, str):
 605            return expression
 606
 607        if key:
 608            value = expression.args.get(key)
 609            if value:
 610                return self.sql(value)
 611            return ""
 612
 613        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 614
 615        if callable(transform):
 616            sql = transform(self, expression)
 617        elif transform:
 618            sql = transform
 619        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 620            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 621
 622            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 623                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 624            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 625                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 626            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 627                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 628            else:
 629                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 630        else:
 631            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 632
 633        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 634
 635    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 636        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 637        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 638        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 639
 640    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 641        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 642        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        options = expression.args.get("options")
 644        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 645        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 646        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 647        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 648        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 649
 650    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 651        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 652            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 653        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 654        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 655
 656    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 657        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 658
 659        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 660            join_mark = ""
 661            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 662
 663        column = ".".join(
 664            self.sql(part)
 665            for part in (
 666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 667                expression.args.get("db"),
 668                expression.args.get("table"),
 669                expression.args.get("this"),
 670            )
 671            if part
 672        )
 673
 674        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 675
 676    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 678        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 679        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 680        return f"{position}{this}"
 681
 682    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 683        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 685        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 686        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 687        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 688        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 689        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 690        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 691
 692        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 693            kind = ""
 694
 695        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 696
 697    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 699        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 700        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 701
 702    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 705            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 706        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 707            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 708        else:
 709            persisted = ""
 710        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 711
 712    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 713        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 714
 715    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 716        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 717            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 718        else:
 719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 720
 721        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 722
 723    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 724        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 725    ) -> str:
 726        this = ""
 727        if expression.this is not None:
 728            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 729            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 730
 731        start = expression.args.get("start")
 732        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 733        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 734        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 735        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 736        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 737        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 738        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 739        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 740        cycle_sql = ""
 741
 742        if cycle is not None:
 743            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 744            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 745
 746        sequence_opts = ""
 747        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 748            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 749            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 750
 751        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 752        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 753
 754        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 755
 756    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 757        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 758    ) -> str:
 759        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 760        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 761        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 762
 763    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 764        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 765    ) -> str:
 766        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 767
 768    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 769        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 770
 771    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 772        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 773        if desc is not None:
 774            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 775        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 776
 777    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 779        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 780        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 781        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 782        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 783
 784    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 785        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 786
 787    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 789        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 790        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 791
 792        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 793
 794        properties_sql = ""
 795        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 796            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 797        ):
 798            properties_sql = self.sql(
 799                exp.Properties(
 800                    expressions=[
 801                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 802                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 803                    ]
 804                )
 805            )
 806
 807        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 808        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 809
 810        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 811        if expression_sql:
 812            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 813
 814            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 815                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 816                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 817                        exp.Properties(
 818                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 819                        ),
 820                        wrapped=False,
 821                    )
 822                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 823                else:
 824                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 825
 826        postindex_props_sql = ""
 827        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 828            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 829                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 830                wrapped=False,
 831                prefix=" ",
 832            )
 833
 834        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 835        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 836        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 837
 838        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 839        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 840
 841        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 842        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 843            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 844                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 845                sep=" ",
 846                prefix=" ",
 847                wrapped=False,
 848            )
 849
 850        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 851
 852        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 853        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 854            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 855                exp.Properties(
 856                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 857                ),
 858                sep=" ",
 859                prefix=" ",
 860                wrapped=False,
 861            )
 862
 863        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 864        no_schema_binding = (
 865            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 866        )
 867
 868        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 869        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 870
 871        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 872        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 873
 874    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 877        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 878        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 879        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 880
 881        if when:
 882            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 883            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 884            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 885
 886        return this
 887
 888    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 889        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 890
 891    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 892        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 893        if with_:
 894            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 895        return sql
 896
 897    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 898        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 899        recursive = (
 900            "RECURSIVE "
 901            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 902            else ""
 903        )
 904
 905        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 906
 907    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 908        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 909        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 910
 911    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 912        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 913        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 914        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 915
 916        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 917            alias = "_t"
 918
 919        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 920
 921    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        if self.BIT_START:
 924            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 925        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 926
 927    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        if self.HEX_START:
 930            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 931        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 932
 933    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 935        if self.BYTE_START:
 936            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 937        return this
 938
 939    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 940        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 941        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 942
 943    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 947        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 948
 949    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 950        type_value = expression.this
 951
 952        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 953            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 954        else:
 955            type_sql = (
 956                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 957                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 958                else type_value
 959            )
 960
 961        nested = ""
 962        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 963        values = ""
 964
 965        if interior:
 966            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 967                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 968                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 969                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 970                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 971                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 972            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 973                nested = f" {interior}"
 974            else:
 975                nested = f"({interior})"
 976
 977        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 978        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 979            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 981        ):
 982            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 983
 984        return type_sql
 985
 986    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 987        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 988        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 989        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 990        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 991
 992    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 994        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 995        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 996        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 997        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 998        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 999        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1000        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1001        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1002        if self.RETURNING_END:
1003            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1004        else:
1005            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1007
1008    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1011        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1012        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1013        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1014        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1015        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1016        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1017        return (
1018            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1019        )
1020
1021    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1022        return self.prepend_ctes(
1023            expression,
1024            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1025        )
1026
1027    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1028        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1029
1030    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1031        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1032        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1033        count = expression.args.get("count")
1034        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1035        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1036            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1037        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1038        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1039
1040    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1041        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1042            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1043            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1044            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1045
1046        agg = expression.this
1047        agg_arg = agg.this
1048        cond = expression.expression.this
1049        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1050        return self.sql(agg)
1051
1052    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1053        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1054            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1055            return ""
1056
1057        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1058
1059    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1060        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1061        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1062        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1063        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1064        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1065        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1066        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1067        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1068        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1069        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1070        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1071        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1072        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1073        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1074        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1075        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1076
1077    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1078        text = expression.name
1079        lower = text.lower()
1080        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1081        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1082        if (
1083            expression.quoted
1084            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1085            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1086            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1087        ):
1088            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1089        return text
1090
1091    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1092        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1093        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1094        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1095        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1096        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1097
1098    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1099        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1100        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1101
1102    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1103        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1104
1105    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1106        root_properties = []
1107        with_properties = []
1108
1109        for p in expression.expressions:
1110            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1111            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1112                with_properties.append(p)
1113            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1114                root_properties.append(p)
1115
1116        return self.root_properties(
1117            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1118        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1119
1120    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1123        return ""
1124
1125    def properties(
1126        self,
1127        properties: exp.Properties,
1128        prefix: str = "",
1129        sep: str = ", ",
1130        suffix: str = "",
1131        wrapped: bool = True,
1132    ) -> str:
1133        if properties.expressions:
1134            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1135            if expressions:
1136                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1137                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1138        return ""
1139
1140    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1141        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1142
1143    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1144        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1145        for p in properties.expressions:
1146            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1147            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1148                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1149            else:
1150                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1151
1152        return properties_locs
1153
1154    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1155        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1156            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1158
1159    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1160        property_cls = expression.__class__
1161        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1162            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1163
1164        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1165        if not property_name:
1166            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1167
1168        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1169
1170    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1171        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1172        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1173        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1174
1175    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1176        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1177        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1178        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1179
1180    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1181        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1182        local = expression.args.get("local")
1183        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1184        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1185        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1186        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1187        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1188
1189    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1190        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1192        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1193
1194    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1195        if expression.args.get("default"):
1196            property = "DEFAULT"
1197        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1198            property = "ON"
1199        else:
1200            property = "OFF"
1201        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1202
1203    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1204        if expression.args.get("no"):
1205            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1206        if expression.args.get("default"):
1207            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1208
1209        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1210        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1211
1212    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1213        default = expression.args.get("default")
1214        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1215        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1216        if default or minimum or maximum:
1217            if default:
1218                prop = "DEFAULT"
1219            elif minimum:
1220                prop = "MINIMUM"
1221            else:
1222                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1223            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1224        units = expression.args.get("units")
1225        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1226        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1227
1228    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1229        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1230        always = expression.args.get("always")
1231        default = expression.args.get("default")
1232        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1233        never = expression.args.get("never")
1234
1235        if autotemp is not None:
1236            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1237        elif always:
1238            prop = "ALWAYS"
1239        elif default:
1240            prop = "DEFAULT"
1241        elif manual:
1242            prop = "MANUAL"
1243        elif never:
1244            prop = "NEVER"
1245        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1246
1247    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1248        no = expression.args.get("no")
1249        no = " NO" if no else ""
1250        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1251        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1252
1253        for_ = ""
1254        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1255            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1256        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1257            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1258        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1259            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1260        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1261
1262    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1263        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1264            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1265        if expression.this:
1266            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1269
1270        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1271        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1272        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1273
1274    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276
1277        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1278        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1279            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1280        else:
1281            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1282
1283        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1284
1285    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1286        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1287        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1288        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1289        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1290        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1291        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1292        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1293
1294    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1295        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1296        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1297        statistics_sql = ""
1298        if statistics is not None:
1299            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1300        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1301
1302    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1303        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1304
1305        if expression.this:
1306            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1308
1309            if expression.expression:
1310                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1311                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1312
1313            sql = f"{sql})"
1314
1315        return f"{sql})"
1316
1317    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1318        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1319
1320        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1321            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1322        else:
1323            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1324
1325        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1326        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1327        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1328
1329        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1330
1331        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1332        partition_sql = (
1333            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1334        )
1335        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1336        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1337        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1338        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1339        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1340        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1341
1342        if self.RETURNING_END:
1343            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1344        else:
1345            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1346
1347        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1348        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1349
1350    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1351        return self.prepend_ctes(
1352            expression,
1353            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1354        )
1355
1356    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1357        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1358
1359    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1360        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1361
1362    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1363        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1364        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1367        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1368
1369    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1370        return expression.name.upper()
1371
1372    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1373        return expression.name.upper()
1374
1375    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1376        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1377        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1378        if constraint:
1379            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1380        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1381        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1382        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1384        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1385        if expressions:
1386            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1387        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1388
1389    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1390        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1391
1392    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1393        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1394        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1395        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1396        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1397        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1398        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1399        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1400        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1401        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1402        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1403        null = expression.args.get("null")
1404        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1405        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1406
1407    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1408        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1409
1410    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1411        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1412        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1413        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1414        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1415
1416    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1417        table = ".".join(
1418            part
1419            for part in [
1420                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1421                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1422                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1423            ]
1424            if part
1425        )
1426
1427        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1428        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1429        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1430        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1431        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1432        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1433        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1434        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1435        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1436        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1437
1438        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1439        if file_format:
1440            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1441            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1442            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1443
1444        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1445        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1446
1447        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1448        if ordinality:
1449            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1450            alias = ""
1451
1452        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1453
1454    def tablesample_sql(
1455        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1456    ) -> str:
1457        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1458            table = expression.this.copy()
1459            table.set("alias", None)
1460            this = self.sql(table)
1461            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1462        else:
1463            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464            alias = ""
1465
1466        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1467        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1468        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1469        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1470        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1471        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1472        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1473        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1474        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1475        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1476        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1477
1478        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1479        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1480            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1481
1482        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1483        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1484        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1485
1486        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1487        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1488            expr = f"({expr})"
1489
1490        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1491
1492    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1493        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1494
1495        if expression.this:
1496            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1497            if not expressions:
1498                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1499
1500            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1501            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1502            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1503            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1504            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1505
1506        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1507        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1508        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1509        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1510        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1511        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1512        if include_nulls is not None:
1513            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1514        else:
1515            nulls = ""
1516        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1517
1518    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1519        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1520        kind = expression.text("kind")
1521        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1522        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1523
1524    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1525        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1526
1527    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1529        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1530        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1531        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1532        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1533        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1534        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1535        if self.RETURNING_END:
1536            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1537        else:
1538            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1539        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1540        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1541
1542    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1543        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1544        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1545            args = self.expressions(expression)
1546            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1547            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1548            values = (
1549                f"({values})"
1550                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1551                else values
1552            )
1553            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1554
1555        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1556        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1557        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1558
1559        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1560
1561        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1562            row = tup.expressions
1563
1564            if i == 0 and column_names:
1565                row = [
1566                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1567                ]
1568
1569            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1570
1571        if self.pretty:
1572            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1573            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1574            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1575            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1576            return self.subquery_sql(
1577                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1578            )
1579
1580        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1581        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1582        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1583
1584    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1585        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1586
1587    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1588        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1589        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1590        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1591
1592    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1593        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1594
1595    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1596        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1597
1598        if expression.args.get("all"):
1599            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1600
1601        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1602        grouping_sets = (
1603            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1604        )
1605
1606        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1607        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1608            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1609        else:
1610            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1611            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1612
1613        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1614        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1615            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1616        else:
1617            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1618            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1619
1620        groupings = csv(
1621            grouping_sets,
1622            cube_sql,
1623            rollup_sql,
1624            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1625            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1626        )
1627
1628        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1629            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1630
1631        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1632
1633    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1634        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1635        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1636
1637    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1638        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1639        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1640        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1641        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1642        return start + connect
1643
1644    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1645        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1646
1647    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1648        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1649            side = None
1650        else:
1651            side = expression.side
1652
1653        op_sql = " ".join(
1654            op
1655            for op in (
1656                expression.method,
1657                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1658                side,
1659                expression.kind,
1660                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1661            )
1662            if op
1663        )
1664        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1665        using = expression.args.get("using")
1666
1667        if not on_sql and using:
1668            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1669
1670        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1671
1672        if on_sql:
1673            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1674            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1675            if using:
1676                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1677            else:
1678                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1679        elif not op_sql:
1680            return f", {this_sql}"
1681
1682        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1683        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1684
1685    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1686        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1687        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1688        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1689
1690    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692
1693        if expression.args.get("view"):
1694            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1695            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1696            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1697            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1698            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1699            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1700
1701        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1702        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1703        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1704
1705    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707        args = ", ".join(
1708            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1709            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1710            if e
1711        )
1712        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1713
1714    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1716        expression = expression.expression
1717        expression = (
1718            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1719        )
1720        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1721
1722    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1723        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1724        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1727        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1728        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1729        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1730        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1731
1732    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1733        expressions = (
1734            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1735        )
1736        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1737        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1738
1739    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1740        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1741
1742    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1743        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1744            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1745            return ""
1746
1747        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1749        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1750        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1751
1752        if wait is not None:
1753            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1754                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1755            else:
1756                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1757
1758        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1759
1760    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1761        text = expression.this or ""
1762        if expression.is_string:
1763            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1764        return text
1765
1766    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1767        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1768        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1769            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1770        elif self.pretty:
1771            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1772        return text
1773
1774    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1775        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1776        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1777        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1778        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1779        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1780        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1781        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1782        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1783        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1784        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1785        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1786
1787    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1788        return "NULL"
1789
1790    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1791        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1792
1793    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1796        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1797
1798    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1799        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1800
1801    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1802        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1803
1804    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1805        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1806
1807    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1808        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1809        asc = not desc
1810
1811        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1812        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1813        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1814        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1815        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1816
1817        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1818        nulls_sort_change = ""
1819        if nulls_first and (
1820            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1821        ):
1822            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1823        elif (
1824            nulls_last
1825            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1826            and not nulls_are_last
1827        ):
1828            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1829
1830        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1831            self.unsupported(
1832                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1833            )
1834            nulls_sort_change = ""
1835
1836        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1837
1838    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1839        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1840        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1841        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1842        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1843        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1844        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1845        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1846        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1847        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1848        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1849        definition_sqls = [
1850            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1851            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1852        ]
1853        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1854        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1855        body = "".join(
1856            (
1857                partition,
1858                order,
1859                measures,
1860                rows,
1861                after,
1862                pattern,
1863                define,
1864            )
1865        )
1866        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1867        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1868        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1869
1870    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1871        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1872
1873        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1874        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1875
1876        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1877            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1878        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1879            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1880
1881        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1882
1883        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1884            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1885            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1886            else []
1887        )
1888
1889        return csv(
1890            *sqls,
1891            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1892            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1893            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1894            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1895            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1896            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1897            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1898            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1899            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1900            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1901            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1902            sep="",
1903        )
1904
1905    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1906        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1907    ) -> t.List[str]:
1908        return [
1909            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1910            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1911        ]
1912
1913    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1914        return [
1915            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1916            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1917            if expression.args.get("windows")
1918            else "",
1919            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1920            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1922        ]
1923
1924    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1925        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1926        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1927        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1928
1929    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1930        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1931        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1932        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1934        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1935        top = (
1936            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1937            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1938            else ""
1939        )
1940
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1942
1943        if kind:
1944            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1945                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1946            else:
1947                if kind == "STRUCT":
1948                    expressions = self.expressions(
1949                        sqls=[
1950                            self.sql(
1951                                exp.Struct(
1952                                    expressions=[
1953                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1954                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1955                                        )
1956                                        for e in expression.expressions
1957                                    ]
1958                                )
1959                            )
1960                        ]
1961                    )
1962                kind = ""
1963
1964        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1965        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1966            expression,
1967            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1968            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1969            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1970        )
1971        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1972
1973    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1976        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1977
1978    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1979        if expression.expressions:
1980            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1981        return ""
1982
1983    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1984        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1985        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1986        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1987        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1988        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1989
1990    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1992        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1993
1994    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996        kind = expression.text("kind")
1997        if kind:
1998            kind = f"{kind}."
1999        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2000
2001    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2002        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2003
2004    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2005        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2006        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2007
2008        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2009        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2010
2011        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2012        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2013
2014    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2015        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2016        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2017
2018    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2019        return self.prepend_ctes(
2020            expression,
2021            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2022        )
2023
2024    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2025        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2026        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2027        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2028        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2029
2030    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2031        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2032
2033        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2034        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2035
2036        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2037            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2038                alias.append("columns", offset)
2039
2040        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2041            columns = alias.columns
2042            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2043        else:
2044            alias = self.sql(alias)
2045
2046        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2047        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2048            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2049        else:
2050            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2051                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2052            elif offset:
2053                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2054            else:
2055                suffix = alias
2056
2057        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2058
2059    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2060        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2061        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2062
2063    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2066        order = expression.args.get("order")
2067        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2068        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2069        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2070        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2071
2072        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2073
2074        first = expression.args.get("first")
2075        if first is None:
2076            first = ""
2077        else:
2078            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2079
2080        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2081            return f"{this} {alias}"
2082
2083        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2084        return f"{this} ({args})"
2085
2086    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2087        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2088        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2089
2090    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2091        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2092        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2093        end = (
2094            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2095            or "CURRENT ROW"
2096        )
2097        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2098
2099    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2102        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2103
2104    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2107        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2108        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2109
2110    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2111        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2112        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2113
2114        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2115
2116    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2117        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2118
2119    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2120        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2121
2122    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2125            this = self.wrap(this)
2126        return f"ANY {this}"
2127
2128    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2129        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2130
2131    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2134
2135        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2136            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2137            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2138
2139        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2140
2141        if default:
2142            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2143
2144        statements.append("END")
2145
2146        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2147            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2148
2149        return " ".join(statements)
2150
2151    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2154        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2155
2156    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2157        order = expression.args.get("order")
2158        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2159        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2160
2161    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2163        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2164        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2165
2166    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2167        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2168
2169        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2170            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2171        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2172            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2173        else:
2174            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2175
2176    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2177        expressions = expression.expressions
2178        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2179            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2180        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2181
2182    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2183        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2184        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2185
2186    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2187        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2188        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2189        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2190        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2191        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2192        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2193        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2194        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2195
2196    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2198        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2199        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2200        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2201
2202    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2203        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2204
2205    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2206        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2207        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2208        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2209
2210    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2211        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2212
2213    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2214        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2215
2216    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2217        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2218        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2219        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2220        if unique_keys is not None:
2221            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2222        else:
2223            unique_keys = ""
2224        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2225        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2226        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2227        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2228        return self.func(
2229            "JSON_OBJECT",
2230            *expression.expressions,
2231            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2232        )
2233
2234    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2235        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2236        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2237        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2238        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2239        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2240        return self.func(
2241            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2242        )
2243
2244    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2247        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2248        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2249        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2250        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2251        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2252        return self.func(
2253            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2254            this,
2255            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2256        )
2257
2258    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2259        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2260        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2261        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2262
2263        if nested_schema:
2264            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2265
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2268        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2269        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2270
2271    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2272        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2273
2274    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2277        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2278        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2279        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2280        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2281        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2282        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2283        return self.func(
2284            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2285        )
2286
2287    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2290        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2291        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2292        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2293        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2294
2295    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2298        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2299        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2300        with_ = (
2301            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2302            if expressions
2303            else ""
2304        )
2305        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2306
2307    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2308        query = expression.args.get("query")
2309        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2310        field = expression.args.get("field")
2311        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2312
2313        if query:
2314            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2315        elif unnest:
2316            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2317        elif field:
2318            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2319        else:
2320            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2321
2322        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2323
2324    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2325        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2326
2327    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2328        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2329        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2330            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2331        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2332
2333        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2334            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2335            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2336
2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2338        if this:
2339            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2340            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2341
2342        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2343
2344    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2345        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2346
2347    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2349        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2350        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2351        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2352        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2353        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2354
2355    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2356        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2357
2358    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2359        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2360            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2361        else:
2362            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2363            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2364
2365        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2366
2367    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2368        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2369        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2371        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2372
2373    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2374        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2375
2376    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2378        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2380
2381    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2382        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2383
2384    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2387        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2388
2389    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2390        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2391
2392    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2393        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2394
2395    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2396        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2397
2398    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2399        if not self.pretty:
2400            return self.binary(expression, op)
2401
2402        sqls = tuple(
2403            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2404            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2405        )
2406
2407        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2408        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2409
2410    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2411        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2412
2413    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2414        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2415
2416    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2417        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2418
2419    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2420        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2421
2422    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2423        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2424
2425    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2426        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2427
2428    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2429        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2430        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2431        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2432        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2433        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2434
2435    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2436        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2437        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2438
2439    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2440        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2441            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2442        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2443
2444    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2445        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2446
2447    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2450        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2451        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2452        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2453
2454    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2457        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2458        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2459        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2460        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2461        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2462        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2463        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2464
2465    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2466        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2467        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2468        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2469        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2470
2471        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2472            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2473
2474        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2475
2476    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2477        return "BEGIN"
2478
2479    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2480        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2481        if chain is not None:
2482            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2483
2484        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2485
2486    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2487        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2488        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2489        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2490
2491    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493
2494        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2495        if dtype:
2496            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2497            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2498            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2499            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2500            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2501
2502        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2503        if default:
2504            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2505
2506        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2507            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2508
2509        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2510
2511    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2512        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2513            # Remove db from tables
2514            expression = expression.transform(
2515                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2516            )
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2519
2520    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2521        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2522
2523        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2524            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2525        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2526            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2527        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2528            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2529        else:
2530            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2531
2532        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2533        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2534        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2535
2536    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2537        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2538            return self.expressions(
2539                expression,
2540                key="actions",
2541                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2542            )
2543        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2544
2545    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2546        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2547        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2548        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2549
2550    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2553        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2554
2555        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2556        if enforced is not None:
2557            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2558
2559        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2560
2561    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2562        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2563        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2564
2565        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2566        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2567        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2568
2569    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2571
2572    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2573        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2574
2575    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2576        return self.sql(
2577            exp.Cast(
2578                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2579                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2580            )
2581        )
2582
2583    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2584        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2585
2586    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2587        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2588            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2589        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2590
2591    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2592        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2593
2594    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2595        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2596
2597    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2598        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2599
2600    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2602
2603    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2605
2606    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2607        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2608
2609    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2610        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2611
2612    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2613        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2614
2615    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2616        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2617
2618    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2619        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2620
2621    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2622        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2623
2624    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2625        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2626            return self.sql(
2627                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2628            )
2629        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2630
2631    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2632        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2633
2634    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2635        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2636
2637    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2638        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2639
2640    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2641        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2642
2643    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2644        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2645
2646    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2647        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2648
2649    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2650        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2651
2652    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2653        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2654
2655    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2656        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2657
2658    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2659        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2660
2661    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2662        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2663
2664    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2665        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2666
2667    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2668        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2669
2670    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2671        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2672
2673    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2674        args = list(expression.args.values())
2675        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2676            args.reverse()
2677        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2678
2679    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2681        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2684        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2685
2686    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2687        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2688        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2689
2690    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2691        args = []
2692
2693        for key in expression.arg_types:
2694            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2695
2696            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2697                for value in arg_value:
2698                    args.append(value)
2699            elif arg_value is not None:
2700                args.append(arg_value)
2701
2702        if self.normalize_functions:
2703            name = expression.sql_name()
2704        else:
2705            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2706
2707        return self.func(name, *args)
2708
2709    def func(
2710        self,
2711        name: str,
2712        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2713        prefix: str = "(",
2714        suffix: str = ")",
2715    ) -> str:
2716        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2717
2718    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2719        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2720        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2721            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2722        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2723
2724    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2725        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2726
2727    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2728        return format_time(
2729            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2730        )
2731
2732    def expressions(
2733        self,
2734        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2735        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2736        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2737        flat: bool = False,
2738        indent: bool = True,
2739        skip_first: bool = False,
2740        sep: str = ", ",
2741        prefix: str = "",
2742    ) -> str:
2743        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2744
2745        if not expressions:
2746            return ""
2747
2748        if flat:
2749            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2750
2751        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2752
2753        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2754        pad = " " * self.pad
2755        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2756
2757        result_sqls = []
2758        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2759            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2760            if not sql:
2761                continue
2762
2763            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2764
2765            if self.pretty:
2766                if self.leading_comma:
2767                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2768                else:
2769                    result_sqls.append(
2770                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2771                    )
2772            else:
2773                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2774
2775        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2776        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2777
2778    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2779        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2780        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2781        if flat:
2782            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2783        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2784
2785    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2786        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2787        if not property_name:
2788            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2789        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2790
2791    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2792        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2793        op = self.seg(op)
2794        return self.query_modifiers(
2795            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2796        )
2797
2798    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2799        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2800
2801    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2802        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2803
2804    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2806        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2807        expressions = (
2808            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2809        )
2810        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2811
2812    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2815        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2816
2817    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2818        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2819
2820    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2821        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2822        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2823        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2824        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2825
2826        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2827        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2828            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2829            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2830                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2831        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2832            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2833                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2834            else:
2835                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2836        else:
2837            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2838        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2839
2840    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2841        table = expression.this
2842        table_alias = ""
2843
2844        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2845        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2846            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2847            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2848
2849        this = self.sql(table)
2850        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2851        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2852        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2853
2854        return self.prepend_ctes(
2855            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2856        )
2857
2858    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2859        if expression.args.get("format"):
2860            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2861
2862        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2863
2864    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2867        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2868        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2869        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2870
2871    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2873        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2874        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2875        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2876
2877    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2878        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2879
2880    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2881        return ""
2882
2883    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2884        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2885        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2886        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2887        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2888        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2889
2890    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2893
2894        if having:
2895            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2896
2897        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2898
2899    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2900        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2901        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2902        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2903        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2904        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2905        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2906        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2907        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2908        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2909        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2910        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2911        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2912        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2913
2914    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2915        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2916        if key_block_size:
2917            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2918
2919        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2920        if using:
2921            return f"USING {using}"
2922
2923        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2924        if parser:
2925            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2926
2927        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2928        if comment:
2929            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2930
2931        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2932        if visible is not None:
2933            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2934
2935        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2936        if engine_attr:
2937            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2938
2939        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2940        if secondary_engine_attr:
2941            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2942
2943        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2944        return ""
2945
2946    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2948        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2950        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2951        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2952        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2953        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2954        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2955        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2956        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2957        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2958
2959    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2960        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2961            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2962
2963        case = exp.Case().when(
2964            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2965            expression.args["true"],
2966            copy=False,
2967        )
2968        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2969        if else_cond:
2970            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2971
2972        return self.sql(case)
2973
2974    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2977        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2978        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2979        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2980        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2981
2982    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2983        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2984
2985    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2986        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2987
2988    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2989        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2991        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2992        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2993        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2994        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2995
2996    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2997        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2998            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
2999
3000            expression = simplify(expression)
3001
3002        return expression
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  72        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  79        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  82        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  85        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  86        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  87        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  89        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  90        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  98        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  99        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 100        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 101        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 102        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 103        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 104        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 105        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 107        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 108        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 109        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 110    }
 111
 112    # Whether the base comes first
 113    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 116    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 119    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 120
 121    # Always do union distinct or union all
 122    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 123
 124    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 125    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 128    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 131    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 134    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 137    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 140    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 143    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 146    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 147
 148    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 149    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 150
 151    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 152    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 153
 154    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 155    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 156
 157    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 158    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 159
 160    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 161    JOIN_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 164    TABLE_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 167    QUERY_HINTS = True
 168
 169    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 170    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 171
 172    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 173    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 176    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 179    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 182    RETURNING_END = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 185    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 188    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 189
 190    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 191    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 192
 193    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 194    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 195
 196    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 197    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 198
 199    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 200    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 201    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 202    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 205    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 206
 207    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 208    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 211    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 214    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 217    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 220    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 223    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 226    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 227
 228    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 229    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 230
 231    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 232    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 233
 234    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 235    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 236
 237    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 238    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 239
 240    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 241        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 250    }
 251
 252    STAR_MAPPING = {
 253        "except": "EXCEPT",
 254        "replace": "REPLACE",
 255    }
 256
 257    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 258        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 259        "seconds": "second",
 260        "minutes": "minute",
 261        "hours": "hour",
 262        "days": "day",
 263        "weeks": "week",
 264        "months": "month",
 265        "quarters": "quarter",
 266        "years": "year",
 267    }
 268
 269    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 270
 271    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 272
 273    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 274
 275    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 276        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 287        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 294        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 296        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 297        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 298        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 305        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 308        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 309        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 311        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 314        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 317        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 330        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 332        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 334        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 338        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 339        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340    }
 341
 342    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 343    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 344
 345    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 346    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 347        exp.Create,
 348        exp.Delete,
 349        exp.Drop,
 350        exp.From,
 351        exp.Insert,
 352        exp.Join,
 353        exp.Select,
 354        exp.Update,
 355        exp.Where,
 356        exp.With,
 357    )
 358
 359    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 360    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 361        exp.Binary,
 362        exp.Union,
 363    )
 364
 365    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 366    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 367        exp.Column,
 368        exp.Literal,
 369        exp.Neg,
 370        exp.Paren,
 371    )
 372
 373    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 374
 375    # Autofilled
 376    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 377    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 378    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 379    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 380    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 381    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 382    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 383    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 384    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 385    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 386
 387    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 388
 389    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 390    QUOTE_START = "'"
 391    QUOTE_END = "'"
 392    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 393    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 394    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 395
 396    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 397    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 398    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 399    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 400    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 401    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 402    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 403
 404    __slots__ = (
 405        "pretty",
 406        "identify",
 407        "normalize",
 408        "pad",
 409        "_indent",
 410        "normalize_functions",
 411        "unsupported_level",
 412        "max_unsupported",
 413        "leading_comma",
 414        "max_text_width",
 415        "comments",
 416        "unsupported_messages",
 417        "_escaped_quote_end",
 418        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 419    )
 420
 421    def __init__(
 422        self,
 423        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 424        identify: str | bool = False,
 425        normalize: bool = False,
 426        pad: int = 2,
 427        indent: int = 2,
 428        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 429        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 430        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 431        leading_comma: bool = False,
 432        max_text_width: int = 80,
 433        comments: bool = True,
 434    ):
 435        import sqlglot
 436
 437        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 438        self.identify = identify
 439        self.normalize = normalize
 440        self.pad = pad
 441        self._indent = indent
 442        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 443        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 444        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 445        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 446        self.comments = comments
 447
 448        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 449        self.normalize_functions = (
 450            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 451        )
 452
 453        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 454        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 455        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 456            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 457        )
 458
 459    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 460        """
 461        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 462
 463        Args:
 464            expression: The syntax tree.
 465            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 466                it is safer to copy.
 467
 468        Returns:
 469            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 470        """
 471        if copy:
 472            expression = expression.copy()
 473
 474        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 475        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 476        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 477        if (
 478            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 479            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 480            and not expression.parent
 481            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 482            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 483        ):
 484            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 485
 486            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 487
 488        self.unsupported_messages = []
 489        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 490
 491        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 492            return sql
 493
 494        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 495            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 496                logger.warning(msg)
 497        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 498            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 499
 500        if self.pretty:
 501            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 502        return sql
 503
 504    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 505        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 506            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 507        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 508
 509    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 510        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 511
 512    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 513        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 514
 515    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 516        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 517        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 518        return comment
 519
 520    def maybe_comment(
 521        self,
 522        sql: str,
 523        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 524        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 525    ) -> str:
 526        comments = (
 527            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 528            if self.comments
 529            else None
 530        )
 531
 532        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 533            return sql
 534
 535        comments_sql = " ".join(
 536            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 537        )
 538
 539        if not comments_sql:
 540            return sql
 541
 542        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 543            return (
 544                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 545                if sql[0].isspace()
 546                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 547            )
 548
 549        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 550
 551    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 552        this_sql = self.indent(
 553            self.sql(expression)
 554            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 555            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 556            level=1,
 557            pad=0,
 558        )
 559        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 560
 561    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 562        original = self.identify
 563        self.identify = False
 564        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 565        self.identify = original
 566        return result
 567
 568    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 569        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 570            return name.upper()
 571        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 572            return name.lower()
 573        return name
 574
 575    def indent(
 576        self,
 577        sql: str,
 578        level: int = 0,
 579        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 580        skip_first: bool = False,
 581        skip_last: bool = False,
 582    ) -> str:
 583        if not self.pretty:
 584            return sql
 585
 586        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 587        lines = sql.split("\n")
 588
 589        return "\n".join(
 590            line
 591            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 592            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 593            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 594        )
 595
 596    def sql(
 597        self,
 598        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 599        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 600        comment: bool = True,
 601    ) -> str:
 602        if not expression:
 603            return ""
 604
 605        if isinstance(expression, str):
 606            return expression
 607
 608        if key:
 609            value = expression.args.get(key)
 610            if value:
 611                return self.sql(value)
 612            return ""
 613
 614        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 615
 616        if callable(transform):
 617            sql = transform(self, expression)
 618        elif transform:
 619            sql = transform
 620        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 621            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 622
 623            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 624                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 625            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 626                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 627            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 628                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 629            else:
 630                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 631        else:
 632            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 633
 634        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 635
 636    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 637        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 638        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 639        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 640
 641    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 642        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 643        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        options = expression.args.get("options")
 645        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 646        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 647        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 648        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 649        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 650
 651    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 652        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 653            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 654        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 655        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 656
 657    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 658        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 659
 660        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 661            join_mark = ""
 662            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 663
 664        column = ".".join(
 665            self.sql(part)
 666            for part in (
 667                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 668                expression.args.get("db"),
 669                expression.args.get("table"),
 670                expression.args.get("this"),
 671            )
 672            if part
 673        )
 674
 675        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 676
 677    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 679        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 680        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 681        return f"{position}{this}"
 682
 683    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 684        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 686        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 687        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 688        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 689        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 690        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 691        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 692
 693        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 694            kind = ""
 695
 696        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 697
 698    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 700        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 701        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 702
 703    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 705        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 706            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 707        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 708            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 709        else:
 710            persisted = ""
 711        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 712
 713    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 714        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 715
 716    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 717        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 718            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 719        else:
 720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 721
 722        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 723
 724    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 725        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 726    ) -> str:
 727        this = ""
 728        if expression.this is not None:
 729            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 730            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 731
 732        start = expression.args.get("start")
 733        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 734        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 735        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 736        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 737        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 738        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 739        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 740        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 741        cycle_sql = ""
 742
 743        if cycle is not None:
 744            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 745            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 746
 747        sequence_opts = ""
 748        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 749            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 750            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 751
 752        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 753        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 754
 755        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 756
 757    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 758        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 759    ) -> str:
 760        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 761        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 762        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 763
 764    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 765        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 766    ) -> str:
 767        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 768
 769    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 770        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 771
 772    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 773        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 774        if desc is not None:
 775            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 776        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 777
 778    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 781        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 782        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 783        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 784
 785    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 786        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 787
 788    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 790        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 791        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 792
 793        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 794
 795        properties_sql = ""
 796        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 797            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 798        ):
 799            properties_sql = self.sql(
 800                exp.Properties(
 801                    expressions=[
 802                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 803                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 804                    ]
 805                )
 806            )
 807
 808        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 809        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 810
 811        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 812        if expression_sql:
 813            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 814
 815            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 816                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 817                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 818                        exp.Properties(
 819                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 820                        ),
 821                        wrapped=False,
 822                    )
 823                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 824                else:
 825                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 826
 827        postindex_props_sql = ""
 828        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 829            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 830                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 831                wrapped=False,
 832                prefix=" ",
 833            )
 834
 835        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 836        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 837        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 838
 839        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 840        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 841
 842        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 843        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 844            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 845                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 846                sep=" ",
 847                prefix=" ",
 848                wrapped=False,
 849            )
 850
 851        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 852
 853        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 854        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 855            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 856                exp.Properties(
 857                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 858                ),
 859                sep=" ",
 860                prefix=" ",
 861                wrapped=False,
 862            )
 863
 864        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 865        no_schema_binding = (
 866            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 867        )
 868
 869        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 870        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 871
 872        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 873        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 874
 875    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 878        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 879        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 880        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 881
 882        if when:
 883            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 884            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 885            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 886
 887        return this
 888
 889    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 890        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891
 892    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 893        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 894        if with_:
 895            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 896        return sql
 897
 898    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 899        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 900        recursive = (
 901            "RECURSIVE "
 902            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 903            else ""
 904        )
 905
 906        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 907
 908    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 909        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 910        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 911
 912    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 913        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 915        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 916
 917        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 918            alias = "_t"
 919
 920        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 921
 922    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        if self.BIT_START:
 925            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 926        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 927
 928    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 930        if self.HEX_START:
 931            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 932        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 933
 934    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 936        if self.BYTE_START:
 937            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 938        return this
 939
 940    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 941        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 942        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 943
 944    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 947        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 948        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 949
 950    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 951        type_value = expression.this
 952
 953        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 954            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        else:
 956            type_sql = (
 957                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 958                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 959                else type_value
 960            )
 961
 962        nested = ""
 963        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 964        values = ""
 965
 966        if interior:
 967            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 968                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 969                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 970                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 971                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 972                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 973            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 974                nested = f" {interior}"
 975            else:
 976                nested = f"({interior})"
 977
 978        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 979        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 981            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 982        ):
 983            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 984
 985        return type_sql
 986
 987    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 988        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 989        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 990        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 991        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 992
 993    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 996        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 997        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 998        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1001        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1002        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1003        if self.RETURNING_END:
1004            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1005        else:
1006            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1008
1009    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1012        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1013        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1014        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1015        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1016        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1017        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1018        return (
1019            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1020        )
1021
1022    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(
1024            expression,
1025            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1026        )
1027
1028    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1029        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1030
1031    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1032        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1033        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1034        count = expression.args.get("count")
1035        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1036        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1037            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1038        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1039        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1040
1041    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1042        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1043            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1045            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1046
1047        agg = expression.this
1048        agg_arg = agg.this
1049        cond = expression.expression.this
1050        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1051        return self.sql(agg)
1052
1053    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1054        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1055            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1056            return ""
1057
1058        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1059
1060    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1061        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1062        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1063        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1064        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1066        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1067        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1069        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1070        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1071        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1072        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1073        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1074        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1076        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1077
1078    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1079        text = expression.name
1080        lower = text.lower()
1081        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1082        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1083        if (
1084            expression.quoted
1085            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1086            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1087            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1088        ):
1089            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1090        return text
1091
1092    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1093        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1094        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1095        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1096        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1097        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1098
1099    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1100        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1101        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1102
1103    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1104        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1105
1106    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1107        root_properties = []
1108        with_properties = []
1109
1110        for p in expression.expressions:
1111            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1112            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1113                with_properties.append(p)
1114            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1115                root_properties.append(p)
1116
1117        return self.root_properties(
1118            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1119        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1120
1121    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1122        if properties.expressions:
1123            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1124        return ""
1125
1126    def properties(
1127        self,
1128        properties: exp.Properties,
1129        prefix: str = "",
1130        sep: str = ", ",
1131        suffix: str = "",
1132        wrapped: bool = True,
1133    ) -> str:
1134        if properties.expressions:
1135            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1136            if expressions:
1137                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1138                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1139        return ""
1140
1141    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1142        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1143
1144    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1145        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1146        for p in properties.expressions:
1147            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1148            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1149                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1150            else:
1151                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1152
1153        return properties_locs
1154
1155    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1157            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1159
1160    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1161        property_cls = expression.__class__
1162        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1163            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1164
1165        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1166        if not property_name:
1167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1168
1169        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1170
1171    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1172        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1173        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1174        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1175
1176    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1177        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1178        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1179        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1180
1181    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1182        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1183        local = expression.args.get("local")
1184        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1185        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1186        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1187        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1188        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1189
1190    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1191        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1192        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1193        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1194
1195    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1196        if expression.args.get("default"):
1197            property = "DEFAULT"
1198        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1199            property = "ON"
1200        else:
1201            property = "OFF"
1202        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1203
1204    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("no"):
1206            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1207        if expression.args.get("default"):
1208            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1209
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1212
1213    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1214        default = expression.args.get("default")
1215        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1216        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1217        if default or minimum or maximum:
1218            if default:
1219                prop = "DEFAULT"
1220            elif minimum:
1221                prop = "MINIMUM"
1222            else:
1223                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1224            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1225        units = expression.args.get("units")
1226        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1227        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1228
1229    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1230        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1231        always = expression.args.get("always")
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1234        never = expression.args.get("never")
1235
1236        if autotemp is not None:
1237            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1238        elif always:
1239            prop = "ALWAYS"
1240        elif default:
1241            prop = "DEFAULT"
1242        elif manual:
1243            prop = "MANUAL"
1244        elif never:
1245            prop = "NEVER"
1246        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1247
1248    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1249        no = expression.args.get("no")
1250        no = " NO" if no else ""
1251        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1252        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1253
1254        for_ = ""
1255        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1256            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1257        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1258            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1259        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1260            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1261        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1262
1263    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1264        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1265            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1266        if expression.this:
1267            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1269            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1270
1271        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1272        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1273        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1274
1275    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277
1278        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1279        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1280            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1281        else:
1282            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1283
1284        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1285
1286    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1287        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1288        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1289        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1290        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1291        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1292        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1293        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1294
1295    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1296        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1297        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1298        statistics_sql = ""
1299        if statistics is not None:
1300            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1301        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1302
1303    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1304        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1305
1306        if expression.this:
1307            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1309
1310            if expression.expression:
1311                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1312                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1313
1314            sql = f"{sql})"
1315
1316        return f"{sql})"
1317
1318    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1319        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1320
1321        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1322            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1323        else:
1324            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1325
1326        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1327        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1328        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1329
1330        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1331
1332        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1333        partition_sql = (
1334            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1335        )
1336        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1337        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1338        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1339        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1340        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1341        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1342
1343        if self.RETURNING_END:
1344            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1345        else:
1346            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1347
1348        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1349        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1350
1351    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1352        return self.prepend_ctes(
1353            expression,
1354            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1355        )
1356
1357    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1358        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1359
1360    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1361        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1362
1363    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1368        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1369
1370    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1371        return expression.name.upper()
1372
1373    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1374        return expression.name.upper()
1375
1376    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1377        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1378        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1379        if constraint:
1380            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1381        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1382        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1383        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1384        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1385        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1386        if expressions:
1387            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1388        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1389
1390    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1391        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1392
1393    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1394        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1395        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1396        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1397        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1398        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1399        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1400        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1401        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1402        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1403        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1404        null = expression.args.get("null")
1405        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1406        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1407
1408    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1409        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1410
1411    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1412        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1413        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1414        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1415        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1416
1417    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1418        table = ".".join(
1419            part
1420            for part in [
1421                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1422                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1423                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1424            ]
1425            if part
1426        )
1427
1428        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1429        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1431        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1432        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1433        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1434        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1435        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1436        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1437        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1438
1439        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1440        if file_format:
1441            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1442            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1443            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1444
1445        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1446        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1447
1448        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1449        if ordinality:
1450            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1451            alias = ""
1452
1453        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1454
1455    def tablesample_sql(
1456        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1457    ) -> str:
1458        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1459            table = expression.this.copy()
1460            table.set("alias", None)
1461            this = self.sql(table)
1462            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1463        else:
1464            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465            alias = ""
1466
1467        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1468        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1469        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1470        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1471        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1472        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1473        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1474        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1475        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1476        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1477        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1478
1479        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1480        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1481            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1482
1483        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1484        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1485        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1486
1487        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1488        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1489            expr = f"({expr})"
1490
1491        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1492
1493    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1494        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1495
1496        if expression.this:
1497            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498            if not expressions:
1499                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1500
1501            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1502            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1503            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1504            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1505            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1506
1507        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1508        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1509        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1510        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1511        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1512        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1513        if include_nulls is not None:
1514            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1515        else:
1516            nulls = ""
1517        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1518
1519    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1520        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1521        kind = expression.text("kind")
1522        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1523        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1524
1525    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1526        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1527
1528    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1530        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1531        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1532        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1534        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1535        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1536        if self.RETURNING_END:
1537            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1538        else:
1539            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1540        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1541        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1542
1543    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1544        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1545        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1546            args = self.expressions(expression)
1547            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1548            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1549            values = (
1550                f"({values})"
1551                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1552                else values
1553            )
1554            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1555
1556        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1557        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1558        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1559
1560        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1561
1562        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1563            row = tup.expressions
1564
1565            if i == 0 and column_names:
1566                row = [
1567                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1568                ]
1569
1570            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1571
1572        if self.pretty:
1573            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1574            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1575            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1576            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1577            return self.subquery_sql(
1578                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1579            )
1580
1581        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1582        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1583        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1584
1585    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1586        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1587
1588    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1589        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1590        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1591        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1592
1593    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1594        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1595
1596    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1597        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1598
1599        if expression.args.get("all"):
1600            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1601
1602        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1603        grouping_sets = (
1604            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1605        )
1606
1607        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1608        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1609            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1610        else:
1611            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1612            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1613
1614        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1615        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1616            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1617        else:
1618            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1619            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1620
1621        groupings = csv(
1622            grouping_sets,
1623            cube_sql,
1624            rollup_sql,
1625            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1626            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1627        )
1628
1629        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1630            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1631
1632        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1633
1634    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1635        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1636        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1637
1638    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1639        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1640        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1641        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1642        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1643        return start + connect
1644
1645    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1646        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1647
1648    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1649        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1650            side = None
1651        else:
1652            side = expression.side
1653
1654        op_sql = " ".join(
1655            op
1656            for op in (
1657                expression.method,
1658                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1659                side,
1660                expression.kind,
1661                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1662            )
1663            if op
1664        )
1665        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1666        using = expression.args.get("using")
1667
1668        if not on_sql and using:
1669            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1670
1671        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1672
1673        if on_sql:
1674            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1675            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1676            if using:
1677                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1678            else:
1679                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1680        elif not op_sql:
1681            return f", {this_sql}"
1682
1683        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1684        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1685
1686    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1687        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1688        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1689        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1690
1691    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        if expression.args.get("view"):
1695            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1696            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1697            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1698            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1699            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1700            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1701
1702        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1703        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1704        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1705
1706    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708        args = ", ".join(
1709            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1710            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1711            if e
1712        )
1713        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1714
1715    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        expression = expression.expression
1718        expression = (
1719            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1720        )
1721        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1722
1723    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1724        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1725        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1727        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1728        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1729        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1730        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1731        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1732
1733    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1734        expressions = (
1735            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1736        )
1737        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1738        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1739
1740    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1741        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1742
1743    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1744        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1745            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1746            return ""
1747
1748        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1750        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1751        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1752
1753        if wait is not None:
1754            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1755                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1756            else:
1757                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1758
1759        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1760
1761    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1762        text = expression.this or ""
1763        if expression.is_string:
1764            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1765        return text
1766
1767    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1768        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1769        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1770            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1771        elif self.pretty:
1772            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1773        return text
1774
1775    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1776        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1777        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1778        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1779        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1780        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1781        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1782        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1783        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1784        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1785        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1786        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1787
1788    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1789        return "NULL"
1790
1791    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1792        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1793
1794    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1797        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1798
1799    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1800        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1801
1802    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1803        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1804
1805    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1806        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1807
1808    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1809        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1810        asc = not desc
1811
1812        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1813        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1814        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1815        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1816        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1817
1818        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1819        nulls_sort_change = ""
1820        if nulls_first and (
1821            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1822        ):
1823            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1824        elif (
1825            nulls_last
1826            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1827            and not nulls_are_last
1828        ):
1829            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1830
1831        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1832            self.unsupported(
1833                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1834            )
1835            nulls_sort_change = ""
1836
1837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1838
1839    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1840        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1841        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1842        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1843        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1844        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1845        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1846        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1847        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1848        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1849        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1850        definition_sqls = [
1851            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1852            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1853        ]
1854        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1855        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1856        body = "".join(
1857            (
1858                partition,
1859                order,
1860                measures,
1861                rows,
1862                after,
1863                pattern,
1864                define,
1865            )
1866        )
1867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1868        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1869        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1870
1871    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1872        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1873
1874        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1875        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1876
1877        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1878            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1879        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1880            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1881
1882        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1883
1884        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1885            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1886            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1887            else []
1888        )
1889
1890        return csv(
1891            *sqls,
1892            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1893            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1894            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1895            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1896            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1897            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1898            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1899            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1900            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1901            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1902            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1903            sep="",
1904        )
1905
1906    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1907        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1908    ) -> t.List[str]:
1909        return [
1910            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1911            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1912        ]
1913
1914    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1915        return [
1916            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1917            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1918            if expression.args.get("windows")
1919            else "",
1920            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1922            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1923        ]
1924
1925    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1926        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1927        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1928        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1929
1930    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1931        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1932        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1933        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1934        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1935        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1936        top = (
1937            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1938            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1939            else ""
1940        )
1941
1942        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1943
1944        if kind:
1945            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1946                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1947            else:
1948                if kind == "STRUCT":
1949                    expressions = self.expressions(
1950                        sqls=[
1951                            self.sql(
1952                                exp.Struct(
1953                                    expressions=[
1954                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1955                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1956                                        )
1957                                        for e in expression.expressions
1958                                    ]
1959                                )
1960                            )
1961                        ]
1962                    )
1963                kind = ""
1964
1965        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1966        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1967            expression,
1968            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1969            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1970            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1971        )
1972        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1973
1974    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1977        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1978
1979    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1980        if expression.expressions:
1981            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1982        return ""
1983
1984    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1985        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1986        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1987        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1988        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1989        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1990
1991    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1994
1995    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        kind = expression.text("kind")
1998        if kind:
1999            kind = f"{kind}."
2000        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2001
2002    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2003        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2004
2005    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2006        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2007        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2008
2009        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2010        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2011
2012        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2013        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2014
2015    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2016        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2017        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2018
2019    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2020        return self.prepend_ctes(
2021            expression,
2022            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2023        )
2024
2025    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2026        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2027        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2028        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2029        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2030
2031    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2032        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033
2034        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2035        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2036
2037        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2038            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2039                alias.append("columns", offset)
2040
2041        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2042            columns = alias.columns
2043            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2044        else:
2045            alias = self.sql(alias)
2046
2047        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2048        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2049            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2050        else:
2051            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2052                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2053            elif offset:
2054                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2055            else:
2056                suffix = alias
2057
2058        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2059
2060    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2061        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2062        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2063
2064    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2067        order = expression.args.get("order")
2068        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2069        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2070        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2071        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2072
2073        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2074
2075        first = expression.args.get("first")
2076        if first is None:
2077            first = ""
2078        else:
2079            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2080
2081        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2082            return f"{this} {alias}"
2083
2084        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2085        return f"{this} ({args})"
2086
2087    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2088        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2089        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2090
2091    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2092        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2093        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2094        end = (
2095            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2096            or "CURRENT ROW"
2097        )
2098        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2099
2100    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2103        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2104
2105    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2107        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2108        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2109        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2110
2111    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2112        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2113        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2114
2115        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2116
2117    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2118        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2119
2120    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2121        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2122
2123    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2126            this = self.wrap(this)
2127        return f"ANY {this}"
2128
2129    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2130        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2131
2132    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2135
2136        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2137            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2138            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2139
2140        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2141
2142        if default:
2143            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2144
2145        statements.append("END")
2146
2147        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2148            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2149
2150        return " ".join(statements)
2151
2152    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2155        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2156
2157    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2158        order = expression.args.get("order")
2159        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2160        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2161
2162    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2164        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2165        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2166
2167    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2168        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2169
2170        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2171            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2172        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2173            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2174        else:
2175            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2176
2177    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2178        expressions = expression.expressions
2179        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2180            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2181        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2182
2183    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2185        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2186
2187    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2188        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2189        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2190        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2191        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2192        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2193        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2194        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2195        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2196
2197    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2200        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2201        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2202
2203    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2204        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2205
2206    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2207        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2208        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2209        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2210
2211    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2212        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2213
2214    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2215        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2216
2217    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2218        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2219        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2220        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2221        if unique_keys is not None:
2222            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2223        else:
2224            unique_keys = ""
2225        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2226        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2227        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2228        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2229        return self.func(
2230            "JSON_OBJECT",
2231            *expression.expressions,
2232            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2233        )
2234
2235    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2236        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2237        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2238        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2239        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2240        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2241        return self.func(
2242            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2243        )
2244
2245    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2247        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2248        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2249        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2250        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2251        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2252        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2253        return self.func(
2254            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2255            this,
2256            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2257        )
2258
2259    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2260        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2261        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2262        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2263
2264        if nested_schema:
2265            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2266
2267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2269        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2270        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2271
2272    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2273        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2274
2275    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2278        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2279        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2280        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2281        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2282        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2283        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2284        return self.func(
2285            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2286        )
2287
2288    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2291        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2292        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2293        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2294        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2295
2296    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2299        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2300        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2301        with_ = (
2302            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2303            if expressions
2304            else ""
2305        )
2306        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2307
2308    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2309        query = expression.args.get("query")
2310        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2311        field = expression.args.get("field")
2312        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2313
2314        if query:
2315            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2316        elif unnest:
2317            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2318        elif field:
2319            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2320        else:
2321            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2322
2323        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2324
2325    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2326        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2327
2328    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2329        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2330        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2331            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2332        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2333
2334        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2335            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2336            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2337
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        if this:
2340            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2341            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2342
2343        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2344
2345    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2346        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2347
2348    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2350        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2351        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2352        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2353        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2354        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2355
2356    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2357        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2358
2359    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2360        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2361            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2362        else:
2363            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2364            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2365
2366        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2367
2368    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2369        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2370        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2372        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2373
2374    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2375        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2376
2377    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2380        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2381
2382    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2384
2385    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2388        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2389
2390    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2391        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2392
2393    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2394        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2395
2396    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2397        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2398
2399    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2400        if not self.pretty:
2401            return self.binary(expression, op)
2402
2403        sqls = tuple(
2404            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2405            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2406        )
2407
2408        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2409        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2410
2411    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2412        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2413
2414    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2415        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2416
2417    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2418        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2419
2420    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2421        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2422
2423    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2424        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2425
2426    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2427        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2428
2429    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2430        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2431        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2432        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2433        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2434        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2435
2436    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2437        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2438        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2439
2440    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2441        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2442            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2443        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2444
2445    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2446        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2447
2448    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2451        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2452        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2453        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2454
2455    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2458        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2459        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2460        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2461        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2462        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2463        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2464        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2465
2466    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2467        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2468        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2469        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2470        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2471
2472        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2473            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2474
2475        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2476
2477    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2478        return "BEGIN"
2479
2480    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2481        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2482        if chain is not None:
2483            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2484
2485        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2486
2487    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2488        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2489        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2490        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2491
2492    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494
2495        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2496        if dtype:
2497            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2498            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2499            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2500            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2501            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2502
2503        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2504        if default:
2505            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2506
2507        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2508            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2509
2510        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2511
2512    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2513        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2514            # Remove db from tables
2515            expression = expression.transform(
2516                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2517            )
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2520
2521    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2522        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2523
2524        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2525            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2526        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2527            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2528        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2529            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2530        else:
2531            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2532
2533        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2534        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2535        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2536
2537    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2538        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2539            return self.expressions(
2540                expression,
2541                key="actions",
2542                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2543            )
2544        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2545
2546    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2548        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2549        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2550
2551    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2554        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2555
2556        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2557        if enforced is not None:
2558            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2559
2560        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2561
2562    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2563        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2564        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2565
2566        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2567        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2568        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2569
2570    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2572
2573    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2574        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2575
2576    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2577        return self.sql(
2578            exp.Cast(
2579                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2580                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2581            )
2582        )
2583
2584    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2585        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2586
2587    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2588        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2589            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2590        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2591
2592    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2593        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2594
2595    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2596        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2597
2598    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2599        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2600
2601    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2602        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2603
2604    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2606
2607    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2608        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2609
2610    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2612
2613    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2614        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2615
2616    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2617        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2618
2619    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2620        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2621
2622    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2623        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2624
2625    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2626        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2627            return self.sql(
2628                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2629            )
2630        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2631
2632    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2634
2635    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2637
2638    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2640
2641    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2643
2644    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2646
2647    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2649
2650    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2652
2653    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2655
2656    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2658
2659    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2661
2662    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2663        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2664
2665    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2666        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2667
2668    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2669        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2670
2671    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2672        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2673
2674    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2675        args = list(expression.args.values())
2676        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2677            args.reverse()
2678        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2679
2680    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2682        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2685        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2686
2687    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2688        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2689        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2690
2691    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2692        args = []
2693
2694        for key in expression.arg_types:
2695            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2696
2697            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2698                for value in arg_value:
2699                    args.append(value)
2700            elif arg_value is not None:
2701                args.append(arg_value)
2702
2703        if self.normalize_functions:
2704            name = expression.sql_name()
2705        else:
2706            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2707
2708        return self.func(name, *args)
2709
2710    def func(
2711        self,
2712        name: str,
2713        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2714        prefix: str = "(",
2715        suffix: str = ")",
2716    ) -> str:
2717        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2718
2719    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2720        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2721        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2722            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2723        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2724
2725    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2726        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2727
2728    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2729        return format_time(
2730            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2731        )
2732
2733    def expressions(
2734        self,
2735        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2736        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2737        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2738        flat: bool = False,
2739        indent: bool = True,
2740        skip_first: bool = False,
2741        sep: str = ", ",
2742        prefix: str = "",
2743    ) -> str:
2744        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2745
2746        if not expressions:
2747            return ""
2748
2749        if flat:
2750            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2751
2752        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2753
2754        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2755        pad = " " * self.pad
2756        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2757
2758        result_sqls = []
2759        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2760            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2761            if not sql:
2762                continue
2763
2764            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2765
2766            if self.pretty:
2767                if self.leading_comma:
2768                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2769                else:
2770                    result_sqls.append(
2771                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2772                    )
2773            else:
2774                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2775
2776        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2777        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2778
2779    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2780        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2781        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2782        if flat:
2783            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2784        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2785
2786    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2787        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2788        if not property_name:
2789            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2790        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2791
2792    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2793        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2794        op = self.seg(op)
2795        return self.query_modifiers(
2796            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2797        )
2798
2799    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2800        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2801
2802    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2803        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2804
2805    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2808        expressions = (
2809            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2810        )
2811        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2812
2813    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2816        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2817
2818    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2820
2821    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2822        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2823        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2824        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2825        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2826
2827        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2828        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2829            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2830            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2831                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2832        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2833            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2834                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2835            else:
2836                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2837        else:
2838            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2839        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2840
2841    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2842        table = expression.this
2843        table_alias = ""
2844
2845        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2846        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2847            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2848            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2849
2850        this = self.sql(table)
2851        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2852        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2853        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2854
2855        return self.prepend_ctes(
2856            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2857        )
2858
2859    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2860        if expression.args.get("format"):
2861            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2862
2863        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2864
2865    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2868        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2869        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2870        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2871
2872    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2875        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2876        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2877
2878    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2880
2881    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2882        return ""
2883
2884    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2886        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2887        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2888        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2889        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2890
2891    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2894
2895        if having:
2896            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2897
2898        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2899
2900    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2901        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2902        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2903        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2904        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2905        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2906        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2907        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2908        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2909        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2910        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2911        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2912        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2913        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2914
2915    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2916        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2917        if key_block_size:
2918            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2919
2920        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2921        if using:
2922            return f"USING {using}"
2923
2924        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2925        if parser:
2926            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2927
2928        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2929        if comment:
2930            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2931
2932        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2933        if visible is not None:
2934            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2935
2936        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2937        if engine_attr:
2938            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2939
2940        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2941        if secondary_engine_attr:
2942            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2943
2944        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2945        return ""
2946
2947    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2949        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2952        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2953        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2954        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2955        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2956        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2957        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2958        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2959
2960    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2961        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2962            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2963
2964        case = exp.Case().when(
2965            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2966            expression.args["true"],
2967            copy=False,
2968        )
2969        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2970        if else_cond:
2971            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2972
2973        return self.sql(case)
2974
2975    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2978        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2979        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2980        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2981        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2982
2983    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2985
2986    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2988
2989    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2990        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2992        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2993        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2994        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2995        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2996
2997    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2998        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2999            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3000
3001            expression = simplify(expression)
3002
3003        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
421    def __init__(
422        self,
423        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
424        identify: str | bool = False,
425        normalize: bool = False,
426        pad: int = 2,
427        indent: int = 2,
428        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
429        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
430        max_unsupported: int = 3,
431        leading_comma: bool = False,
432        max_text_width: int = 80,
433        comments: bool = True,
434    ):
435        import sqlglot
436
437        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
438        self.identify = identify
439        self.normalize = normalize
440        self.pad = pad
441        self._indent = indent
442        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
443        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
444        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
445        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
446        self.comments = comments
447
448        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
449        self.normalize_functions = (
450            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
451        )
452
453        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
454        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
455        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
456            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
457        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
279    @classmethod
280    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
281        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
282
283        Args:
284            text: The text to check.
285            identify:
286                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
287                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
288
289        Returns:
290            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
291        """
292        if identify is True or identify == "always":
293            return True
294
295        if identify == "safe":
296            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
297
298        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
459    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
460        """
461        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
462
463        Args:
464            expression: The syntax tree.
465            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
466                it is safer to copy.
467
468        Returns:
469            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
470        """
471        if copy:
472            expression = expression.copy()
473
474        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
475        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
476        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
477        if (
478            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
479            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
480            and not expression.parent
481            and "with" in expression.arg_types
482            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
483        ):
484            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
485
486            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
487
488        self.unsupported_messages = []
489        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
490
491        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
492            return sql
493
494        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
495            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
496                logger.warning(msg)
497        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
498            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
499
500        if self.pretty:
501            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
502        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
504    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
505        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
506            raise UnsupportedError(message)
507        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
509    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
510        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
512    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
513        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
515    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
516        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
517        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
518        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
520    def maybe_comment(
521        self,
522        sql: str,
523        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
524        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
525    ) -> str:
526        comments = (
527            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
528            if self.comments
529            else None
530        )
531
532        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
533            return sql
534
535        comments_sql = " ".join(
536            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
537        )
538
539        if not comments_sql:
540            return sql
541
542        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
543            return (
544                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
545                if sql[0].isspace()
546                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
547            )
548
549        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
551    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
552        this_sql = self.indent(
553            self.sql(expression)
554            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
555            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
556            level=1,
557            pad=0,
558        )
559        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
561    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
562        original = self.identify
563        self.identify = False
564        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
565        self.identify = original
566        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
568    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
569        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
570            return name.upper()
571        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
572            return name.lower()
573        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
575    def indent(
576        self,
577        sql: str,
578        level: int = 0,
579        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
580        skip_first: bool = False,
581        skip_last: bool = False,
582    ) -> str:
583        if not self.pretty:
584            return sql
585
586        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
587        lines = sql.split("\n")
588
589        return "\n".join(
590            line
591            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
592            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
593            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
594        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
596    def sql(
597        self,
598        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
599        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
600        comment: bool = True,
601    ) -> str:
602        if not expression:
603            return ""
604
605        if isinstance(expression, str):
606            return expression
607
608        if key:
609            value = expression.args.get(key)
610            if value:
611                return self.sql(value)
612            return ""
613
614        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
615
616        if callable(transform):
617            sql = transform(self, expression)
618        elif transform:
619            sql = transform
620        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
621            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
622
623            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
624                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
625            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
626                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
627            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
628                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
629            else:
630                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
631        else:
632            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
633
634        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
636    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
637        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
638        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
639        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
641    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
642        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
643        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
644        options = expression.args.get("options")
645        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
646        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
647        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
648        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
649        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
651    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
652        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
653            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
654        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
655        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
657    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
658        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
659
660        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
661            join_mark = ""
662            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
663
664        column = ".".join(
665            self.sql(part)
666            for part in (
667                expression.args.get("catalog"),
668                expression.args.get("db"),
669                expression.args.get("table"),
670                expression.args.get("this"),
671            )
672            if part
673        )
674
675        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
677    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
679        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
680        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
681        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
683    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
684        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
686        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
687        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
688        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
689        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
690        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
691        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
692
693        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
694            kind = ""
695
696        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
698    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
700        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
701        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
703    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
705        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
706            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
707        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
708            persisted = " PERSISTED"
709        else:
710            persisted = ""
711        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
713    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
714        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
716    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
717        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
718            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
719        else:
720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
721
722        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
724    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
725        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
726    ) -> str:
727        this = ""
728        if expression.this is not None:
729            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
730            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
731
732        start = expression.args.get("start")
733        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
734        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
735        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
736        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
737        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
738        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
739        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
740        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
741        cycle_sql = ""
742
743        if cycle is not None:
744            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
745            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
746
747        sequence_opts = ""
748        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
749            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
750            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
751
752        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
753        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
754
755        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
757    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
758        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
759    ) -> str:
760        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
761        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
762        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
764    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
765        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
766    ) -> str:
767        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
769    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
770        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
772    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
773        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
774        if desc is not None:
775            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
776        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
778    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
780        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
781        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
782        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
783        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
785    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
786        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
788    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
790        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
791        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
792
793        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
794
795        properties_sql = ""
796        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
797            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
798        ):
799            properties_sql = self.sql(
800                exp.Properties(
801                    expressions=[
802                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
803                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
804                    ]
805                )
806            )
807
808        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
809        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
810
811        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
812        if expression_sql:
813            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
814
815            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
816                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
817                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
818                        exp.Properties(
819                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
820                        ),
821                        wrapped=False,
822                    )
823                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
824                else:
825                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
826
827        postindex_props_sql = ""
828        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
829            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
830                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
831                wrapped=False,
832                prefix=" ",
833            )
834
835        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
836        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
837        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
838
839        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
840        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
841
842        postcreate_props_sql = ""
843        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
844            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
845                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
846                sep=" ",
847                prefix=" ",
848                wrapped=False,
849            )
850
851        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
852
853        postexpression_props_sql = ""
854        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
855            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
856                exp.Properties(
857                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
858                ),
859                sep=" ",
860                prefix=" ",
861                wrapped=False,
862            )
863
864        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
865        no_schema_binding = (
866            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
867        )
868
869        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
870        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
871
872        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
873        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
875    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
877        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
878        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
879        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
880        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
881
882        if when:
883            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
884            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
885            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
886
887        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
889    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
890        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
892    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
893        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
894        if with_:
895            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
896        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
898    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
899        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
900        recursive = (
901            "RECURSIVE "
902            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
903            else ""
904        )
905
906        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
908    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
909        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
910        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
912    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
913        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
914        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
915        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
916
917        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
918            alias = "_t"
919
920        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
922    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
924        if self.BIT_START:
925            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
926        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
928    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
930        if self.HEX_START:
931            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
932        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
934    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
936        if self.BYTE_START:
937            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
938        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
940    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
941        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
942        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
944    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
946        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
947        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
948        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
950    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
951        type_value = expression.this
952
953        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
954            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
955        else:
956            type_sql = (
957                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
958                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
959                else type_value
960            )
961
962        nested = ""
963        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
964        values = ""
965
966        if interior:
967            if expression.args.get("nested"):
968                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
969                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
970                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
971                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
972                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
973            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
974                nested = f" {interior}"
975            else:
976                nested = f"({interior})"
977
978        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
979        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
980            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
981            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
982        ):
983            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
984
985        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
987    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
988        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
989        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
990        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
991        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
 993    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 996        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 997        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 998        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1001        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1002        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1003        if self.RETURNING_END:
1004            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1005        else:
1006            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1009    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1012        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1013        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1014        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1015        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1016        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1017        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1018        return (
1019            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1020        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1022    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(
1024            expression,
1025            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1026        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1028    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1029        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1031    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1032        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1033        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1034        count = expression.args.get("count")
1035        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1036        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1037            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1038        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1039        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1041    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1042        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1043            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1045            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1046
1047        agg = expression.this
1048        agg_arg = agg.this
1049        cond = expression.expression.this
1050        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1051        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1053    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1054        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1055            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1056            return ""
1057
1058        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1060    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1061        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1062        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1063        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1064        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1066        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1067        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1069        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1070        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1071        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1072        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1073        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1074        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1075        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1076        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1078    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1079        text = expression.name
1080        lower = text.lower()
1081        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1082        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1083        if (
1084            expression.quoted
1085            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1086            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1087            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1088        ):
1089            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1090        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1092    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1093        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1094        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1095        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1096        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1097        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1099    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1100        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1101        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1103    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1104        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1106    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1107        root_properties = []
1108        with_properties = []
1109
1110        for p in expression.expressions:
1111            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1112            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1113                with_properties.append(p)
1114            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1115                root_properties.append(p)
1116
1117        return self.root_properties(
1118            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1119        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1121    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1122        if properties.expressions:
1123            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1124        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1126    def properties(
1127        self,
1128        properties: exp.Properties,
1129        prefix: str = "",
1130        sep: str = ", ",
1131        suffix: str = "",
1132        wrapped: bool = True,
1133    ) -> str:
1134        if properties.expressions:
1135            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1136            if expressions:
1137                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1138                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1139        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1141    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1142        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1144    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1145        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1146        for p in properties.expressions:
1147            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1148            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1149                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1150            else:
1151                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1152
1153        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1155    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1157            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1160    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1161        property_cls = expression.__class__
1162        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1163            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1164
1165        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1166        if not property_name:
1167            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1168
1169        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1171    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1172        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1173        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1174        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1176    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1177        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1178        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1179        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1181    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1182        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1183        local = expression.args.get("local")
1184        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1185        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1186        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1187        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1188        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1190    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1191        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1192        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1193        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1195    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1196        if expression.args.get("default"):
1197            property = "DEFAULT"
1198        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1199            property = "ON"
1200        else:
1201            property = "OFF"
1202        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1204    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("no"):
1206            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1207        if expression.args.get("default"):
1208            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1209
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1213    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1214        default = expression.args.get("default")
1215        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1216        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1217        if default or minimum or maximum:
1218            if default:
1219                prop = "DEFAULT"
1220            elif minimum:
1221                prop = "MINIMUM"
1222            else:
1223                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1224            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1225        units = expression.args.get("units")
1226        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1227        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1229    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1230        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1231        always = expression.args.get("always")
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1234        never = expression.args.get("never")
1235
1236        if autotemp is not None:
1237            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1238        elif always:
1239            prop = "ALWAYS"
1240        elif default:
1241            prop = "DEFAULT"
1242        elif manual:
1243            prop = "MANUAL"
1244        elif never:
1245            prop = "NEVER"
1246        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1248    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1249        no = expression.args.get("no")
1250        no = " NO" if no else ""
1251        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1252        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1253
1254        for_ = ""
1255        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1256            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1257        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1258            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1259        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1260            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1261        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1263    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1264        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1265            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1266        if expression.this:
1267            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1269            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1270
1271        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1272        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1273        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1275    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277
1278        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1279        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1280            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1281        else:
1282            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1283
1284        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1286    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1287        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1288        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1289        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1290        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1291        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1292        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1293        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1295    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1296        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1297        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1298        statistics_sql = ""
1299        if statistics is not None:
1300            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1301        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1303    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1304        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1305
1306        if expression.this:
1307            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1309
1310            if expression.expression:
1311                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1312                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1313
1314            sql = f"{sql})"
1315
1316        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1318    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1319        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1320
1321        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1322            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1323        else:
1324            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1325
1326        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1327        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1328        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1329
1330        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1331
1332        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1333        partition_sql = (
1334            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1335        )
1336        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1337        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1338        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1339        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1340        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1341        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1342
1343        if self.RETURNING_END:
1344            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1345        else:
1346            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1347
1348        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1349        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1351    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1352        return self.prepend_ctes(
1353            expression,
1354            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1355        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1357    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1358        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1360    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1361        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1363    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1368        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1370    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1371        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1373    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1374        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1376    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1377        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1378        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1379        if constraint:
1380            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1381        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1382        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1383        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1384        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1385        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1386        if expressions:
1387            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1388        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1390    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1391        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1393    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1394        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1395        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1396        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1397        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1398        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1399        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1400        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1401        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1402        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1403        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1404        null = expression.args.get("null")
1405        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1406        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1408    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1409        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1411    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1412        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1413        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1414        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1415        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1417    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1418        table = ".".join(
1419            part
1420            for part in [
1421                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1422                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1423                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1424            ]
1425            if part
1426        )
1427
1428        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1429        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1431        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1432        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1433        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1434        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1435        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1436        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1437        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1438
1439        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1440        if file_format:
1441            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1442            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1443            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1444
1445        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1446        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1447
1448        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1449        if ordinality:
1450            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1451            alias = ""
1452
1453        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1455    def tablesample_sql(
1456        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1457    ) -> str:
1458        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1459            table = expression.this.copy()
1460            table.set("alias", None)
1461            this = self.sql(table)
1462            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1463        else:
1464            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465            alias = ""
1466
1467        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1468        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1469        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1470        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1471        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1472        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1473        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1474        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1475        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1476        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1477        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1478
1479        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1480        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1481            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1482
1483        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1484        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1485        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1486
1487        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1488        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1489            expr = f"({expr})"
1490
1491        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1493    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1494        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1495
1496        if expression.this:
1497            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498            if not expressions:
1499                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1500
1501            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1502            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1503            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1504            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1505            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1506
1507        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1508        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1509        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1510        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1511        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1512        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1513        if include_nulls is not None:
1514            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1515        else:
1516            nulls = ""
1517        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1519    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1520        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1521        kind = expression.text("kind")
1522        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1523        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1525    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1526        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1528    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1530        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1531        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1532        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1534        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1535        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1536        if self.RETURNING_END:
1537            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1538        else:
1539            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1540        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1541        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1543    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1544        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1545        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1546            args = self.expressions(expression)
1547            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1548            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1549            values = (
1550                f"({values})"
1551                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1552                else values
1553            )
1554            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1555
1556        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1557        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1558        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1559
1560        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1561
1562        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1563            row = tup.expressions
1564
1565            if i == 0 and column_names:
1566                row = [
1567                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1568                ]
1569
1570            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1571
1572        if self.pretty:
1573            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1574            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1575            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1576            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1577            return self.subquery_sql(
1578                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1579            )
1580
1581        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1582        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1583        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1585    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1586        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1588    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1589        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1590        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1591        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1593    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1594        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1596    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1597        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1598
1599        if expression.args.get("all"):
1600            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1601
1602        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1603        grouping_sets = (
1604            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1605        )
1606
1607        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1608        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1609            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1610        else:
1611            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1612            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1613
1614        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1615        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1616            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1617        else:
1618            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1619            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1620
1621        groupings = csv(
1622            grouping_sets,
1623            cube_sql,
1624            rollup_sql,
1625            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1626            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1627        )
1628
1629        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1630            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1631
1632        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1634    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1635        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1636        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1638    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1639        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1640        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1641        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1642        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1643        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1645    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1646        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1648    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1649        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1650            side = None
1651        else:
1652            side = expression.side
1653
1654        op_sql = " ".join(
1655            op
1656            for op in (
1657                expression.method,
1658                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1659                side,
1660                expression.kind,
1661                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1662            )
1663            if op
1664        )
1665        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1666        using = expression.args.get("using")
1667
1668        if not on_sql and using:
1669            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1670
1671        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1672
1673        if on_sql:
1674            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1675            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1676            if using:
1677                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1678            else:
1679                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1680        elif not op_sql:
1681            return f", {this_sql}"
1682
1683        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1684        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1686    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1687        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1688        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1689        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1691    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        if expression.args.get("view"):
1695            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1696            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1697            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1698            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1699            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1700            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1701
1702        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1703        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1704        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1706    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708        args = ", ".join(
1709            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1710            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1711            if e
1712        )
1713        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1715    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        expression = expression.expression
1718        expression = (
1719            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1720        )
1721        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1723    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1724        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1725        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1727        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1728        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1729        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1730        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1731        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1733    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1734        expressions = (
1735            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1736        )
1737        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1738        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1740    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1741        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1743    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1744        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1745            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1746            return ""
1747
1748        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1750        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1751        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1752
1753        if wait is not None:
1754            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1755                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1756            else:
1757                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1758
1759        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1761    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1762        text = expression.this or ""
1763        if expression.is_string:
1764            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1765        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1767    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1768        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1769        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1770            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1771        elif self.pretty:
1772            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1773        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1775    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1776        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1777        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1778        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1779        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1780        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1781        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1782        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1783        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1784        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1785        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1786        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1788    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1789        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1791    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1792        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1794    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1797        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1799    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1800        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1802    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1803        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1805    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1806        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1808    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1809        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1810        asc = not desc
1811
1812        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1813        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1814        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1815        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1816        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1817
1818        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1819        nulls_sort_change = ""
1820        if nulls_first and (
1821            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1822        ):
1823            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1824        elif (
1825            nulls_last
1826            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1827            and not nulls_are_last
1828        ):
1829            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1830
1831        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1832            self.unsupported(
1833                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1834            )
1835            nulls_sort_change = ""
1836
1837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1839    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1840        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1841        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1842        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1843        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1844        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1845        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1846        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1847        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1848        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1849        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1850        definition_sqls = [
1851            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1852            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1853        ]
1854        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1855        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1856        body = "".join(
1857            (
1858                partition,
1859                order,
1860                measures,
1861                rows,
1862                after,
1863                pattern,
1864                define,
1865            )
1866        )
1867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1868        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1869        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1871    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1872        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1873
1874        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1875        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1876
1877        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1878            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1879        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1880            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1881
1882        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1883
1884        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1885            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1886            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1887            else []
1888        )
1889
1890        return csv(
1891            *sqls,
1892            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1893            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1894            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1895            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1896            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1897            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1898            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1899            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1900            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1901            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1902            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1903            sep="",
1904        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1906    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1907        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1908    ) -> t.List[str]:
1909        return [
1910            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1911            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1912        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1914    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1915        return [
1916            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1917            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1918            if expression.args.get("windows")
1919            else "",
1920            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1922            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1923        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1925    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1926        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1927        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1928        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1930    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1931        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1932        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1933        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1934        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1935        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1936        top = (
1937            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1938            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1939            else ""
1940        )
1941
1942        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1943
1944        if kind:
1945            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1946                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1947            else:
1948                if kind == "STRUCT":
1949                    expressions = self.expressions(
1950                        sqls=[
1951                            self.sql(
1952                                exp.Struct(
1953                                    expressions=[
1954                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1955                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1956                                        )
1957                                        for e in expression.expressions
1958                                    ]
1959                                )
1960                            )
1961                        ]
1962                    )
1963                kind = ""
1964
1965        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1966        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1967            expression,
1968            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1969            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1970            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1971        )
1972        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1974    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1977        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1979    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1980        if expression.expressions:
1981            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1982        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1984    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1985        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1986        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1987        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1988        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1989        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1991    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1995    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        kind = expression.text("kind")
1998        if kind:
1999            kind = f"{kind}."
2000        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2002    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2003        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2005    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2006        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2007        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2008
2009        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2010        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2011
2012        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2013        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2015    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2016        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2017        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2019    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2020        return self.prepend_ctes(
2021            expression,
2022            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2023        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2025    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2026        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2027        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2028        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2029        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2031    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2032        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033
2034        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2035        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2036
2037        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2038            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2039                alias.append("columns", offset)
2040
2041        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2042            columns = alias.columns
2043            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2044        else:
2045            alias = self.sql(alias)
2046
2047        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2048        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2049            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2050        else:
2051            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2052                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2053            elif offset:
2054                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2055            else:
2056                suffix = alias
2057
2058        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2060    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2061        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2062        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2064    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2067        order = expression.args.get("order")
2068        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2069        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2070        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2071        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2072
2073        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2074
2075        first = expression.args.get("first")
2076        if first is None:
2077            first = ""
2078        else:
2079            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2080
2081        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2082            return f"{this} {alias}"
2083
2084        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2085        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2087    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2088        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2089        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2091    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2092        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2093        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2094        end = (
2095            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2096            or "CURRENT ROW"
2097        )
2098        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2100    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2103        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2105    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2107        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2108        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2109        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2111    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2112        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2113        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2114
2115        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2117    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2118        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2120    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2121        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2123    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2126            this = self.wrap(this)
2127        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2129    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2130        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2132    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2135
2136        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2137            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2138            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2139
2140        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2141
2142        if default:
2143            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2144
2145        statements.append("END")
2146
2147        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2148            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2149
2150        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2152    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2155        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2157    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2158        order = expression.args.get("order")
2159        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2160        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2162    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2164        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2165        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2167    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2168        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2169
2170        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2171            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2172        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2173            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2174        else:
2175            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2177    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2178        expressions = expression.expressions
2179        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2180            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2181        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2183    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2185        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2187    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2188        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2189        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2190        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2191        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2192        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2193        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2194        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2195        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2197    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2200        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2201        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2203    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2204        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2206    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2207        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2208        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2209        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2211    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2212        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2214    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2215        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2217    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2218        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2219        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2220        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2221        if unique_keys is not None:
2222            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2223        else:
2224            unique_keys = ""
2225        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2226        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2227        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2228        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2229        return self.func(
2230            "JSON_OBJECT",
2231            *expression.expressions,
2232            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2233        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2235    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2236        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2237        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2238        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2239        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2240        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2241        return self.func(
2242            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2243        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2245    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2247        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2248        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2249        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2250        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2251        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2252        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2253        return self.func(
2254            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2255            this,
2256            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2257        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2259    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2260        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2261        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2262        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2263
2264        if nested_schema:
2265            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2266
2267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2269        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2270        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2272    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2273        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2275    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2278        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2279        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2280        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2281        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2282        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2283        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2284        return self.func(
2285            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2286        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2288    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2291        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2292        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2293        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2294        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2296    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2299        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2300        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2301        with_ = (
2302            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2303            if expressions
2304            else ""
2305        )
2306        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2308    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2309        query = expression.args.get("query")
2310        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2311        field = expression.args.get("field")
2312        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2313
2314        if query:
2315            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2316        elif unnest:
2317            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2318        elif field:
2319            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2320        else:
2321            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2322
2323        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2325    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2326        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2328    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2329        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2330        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2331            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2332        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2333
2334        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2335            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2336            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2337
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        if this:
2340            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2341            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2342
2343        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2345    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2346        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2348    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2350        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2351        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2352        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2353        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2354        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2356    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2357        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2359    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2360        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2361            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2362        else:
2363            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2364            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2365
2366        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2368    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2369        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2370        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2372        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2374    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2375        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2377    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2380        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2382    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2385    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2388        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2390    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2391        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2393    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2394        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2396    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2397        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2399    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2400        if not self.pretty:
2401            return self.binary(expression, op)
2402
2403        sqls = tuple(
2404            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2405            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2406        )
2407
2408        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2409        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2411    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2412        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2414    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2415        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2417    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2418        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2420    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2421        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2423    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2424        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2426    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2427        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2429    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2430        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2431        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2432        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2433        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2434        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2436    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2437        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2438        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2440    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2441        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2442            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2443        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2445    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2446        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2448    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2451        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2452        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2453        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2455    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2458        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2459        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2460        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2461        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2462        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2463        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2464        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2466    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2467        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2468        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2469        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2470        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2471
2472        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2473            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2474
2475        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2477    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2478        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2480    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2481        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2482        if chain is not None:
2483            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2484
2485        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2487    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2488        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2489        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2490        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2492    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494
2495        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2496        if dtype:
2497            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2498            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2499            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2500            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2501            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2502
2503        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2504        if default:
2505            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2506
2507        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2508            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2509
2510        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2512    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2513        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2514            # Remove db from tables
2515            expression = expression.transform(
2516                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2517            )
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2521    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2522        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2523
2524        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2525            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2526        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2527            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2528        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2529            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2530        else:
2531            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2532
2533        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2534        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2535        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2537    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2538        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2539            return self.expressions(
2540                expression,
2541                key="actions",
2542                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2543            )
2544        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2546    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2548        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2549        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2551    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2554        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2555
2556        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2557        if enforced is not None:
2558            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2559
2560        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2562    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2563        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2564        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2565
2566        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2567        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2568        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2570    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2573    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2574        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2576    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2577        return self.sql(
2578            exp.Cast(
2579                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2580                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2581            )
2582        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2584    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2585        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2587    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2588        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2589            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2590        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2592    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2593        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2595    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2596        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2598    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2599        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2601    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2602        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2604    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2607    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2608        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2610    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2613    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2614        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2616    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2617        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2619    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2620        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2622    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2623        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2625    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2626        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2627            return self.sql(
2628                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2629            )
2630        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2632    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2635    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2638    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2641    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2644    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2647    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2650    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2653    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2656    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2659    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2662    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2663        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2665    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2666        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2668    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2669        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2671    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2672        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2674    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2675        args = list(expression.args.values())
2676        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2677            args.reverse()
2678        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2680    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2682        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2685        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2687    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2688        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2689        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2691    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2692        args = []
2693
2694        for key in expression.arg_types:
2695            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2696
2697            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2698                for value in arg_value:
2699                    args.append(value)
2700            elif arg_value is not None:
2701                args.append(arg_value)
2702
2703        if self.normalize_functions:
2704            name = expression.sql_name()
2705        else:
2706            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2707
2708        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2710    def func(
2711        self,
2712        name: str,
2713        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2714        prefix: str = "(",
2715        suffix: str = ")",
2716    ) -> str:
2717        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2719    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2720        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2721        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2722            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2723        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2725    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2726        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2728    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2729        return format_time(
2730            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2731        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2733    def expressions(
2734        self,
2735        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2736        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2737        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2738        flat: bool = False,
2739        indent: bool = True,
2740        skip_first: bool = False,
2741        sep: str = ", ",
2742        prefix: str = "",
2743    ) -> str:
2744        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2745
2746        if not expressions:
2747            return ""
2748
2749        if flat:
2750            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2751
2752        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2753
2754        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2755        pad = " " * self.pad
2756        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2757
2758        result_sqls = []
2759        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2760            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2761            if not sql:
2762                continue
2763
2764            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2765
2766            if self.pretty:
2767                if self.leading_comma:
2768                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2769                else:
2770                    result_sqls.append(
2771                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2772                    )
2773            else:
2774                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2775
2776        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2777        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2779    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2780        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2781        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2782        if flat:
2783            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2784        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2786    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2787        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2788        if not property_name:
2789            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2790        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2792    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2793        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2794        op = self.seg(op)
2795        return self.query_modifiers(
2796            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2797        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2799    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2800        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2802    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2803        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2805    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2808        expressions = (
2809            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2810        )
2811        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2813    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2816        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2818    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2821    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2822        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2823        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2824        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2825        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2826
2827        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2828        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2829            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2830            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2831                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2832        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2833            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2834                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2835            else:
2836                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2837        else:
2838            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2839        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2841    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2842        table = expression.this
2843        table_alias = ""
2844
2845        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2846        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2847            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2848            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2849
2850        this = self.sql(table)
2851        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2852        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2853        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2854
2855        return self.prepend_ctes(
2856            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2857        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2859    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2860        if expression.args.get("format"):
2861            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2862
2863        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2865    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2868        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2869        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2870        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2872    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2875        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2876        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2878    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2881    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2882        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2884    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2886        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2887        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2888        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2889        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2891    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2894
2895        if having:
2896            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2897
2898        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2900    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2901        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2902        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2903        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2904        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2905        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2906        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2907        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2908        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2909        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2910        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2911        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2912        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2913        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2915    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2916        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2917        if key_block_size:
2918            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2919
2920        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2921        if using:
2922            return f"USING {using}"
2923
2924        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2925        if parser:
2926            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2927
2928        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2929        if comment:
2930            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2931
2932        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2933        if visible is not None:
2934            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2935
2936        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2937        if engine_attr:
2938            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2939
2940        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2941        if secondary_engine_attr:
2942            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2943
2944        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2945        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2947    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2949        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2952        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2953        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2954        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2955        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2956        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2957        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2958        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2960    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2961        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2962            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2963
2964        case = exp.Case().when(
2965            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2966            expression.args["true"],
2967            copy=False,
2968        )
2969        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2970        if else_cond:
2971            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2972
2973        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2975    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2978        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2979        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2980        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2981        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2983    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
2986    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
2989    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2990        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2992        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2993        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2994        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2995        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)