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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 343    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 344
 345    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 346    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 347
 348    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 349    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 350
 351    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 352    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 353
 354    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 355        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 356        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 363        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 365    }
 366
 367    STAR_MAPPING = {
 368        "except": "EXCEPT",
 369        "replace": "REPLACE",
 370    }
 371
 372    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 373        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 374        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 375        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 376        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 377        "DAYS": "DAY",
 378        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 379        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 380        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 381        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 382    }
 383
 384    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 385        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 386        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 387        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 388        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 389        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 390            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 391            if e.args.get("windows")
 392            else ""
 393        ),
 394    }
 395
 396    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 397
 398    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 399
 400    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 401    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 402
 403    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 404        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 411        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 417        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 426        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 429        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 439        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 448        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 451        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 472        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480    }
 481
 482    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 483    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 484
 485    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 486    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 487        exp.Create,
 488        exp.Delete,
 489        exp.Drop,
 490        exp.From,
 491        exp.Insert,
 492        exp.Join,
 493        exp.Select,
 494        exp.Union,
 495        exp.Update,
 496        exp.Where,
 497        exp.With,
 498    )
 499
 500    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 501    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Binary,
 503        exp.Union,
 504    )
 505
 506    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 507    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 508        exp.Column,
 509        exp.Literal,
 510        exp.Neg,
 511        exp.Paren,
 512    )
 513
 514    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 515        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 516        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 517        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 518        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 519    }
 520
 521    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 522    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 523
 524    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 525
 526    __slots__ = (
 527        "pretty",
 528        "identify",
 529        "normalize",
 530        "pad",
 531        "_indent",
 532        "normalize_functions",
 533        "unsupported_level",
 534        "max_unsupported",
 535        "leading_comma",
 536        "max_text_width",
 537        "comments",
 538        "dialect",
 539        "unsupported_messages",
 540        "_escaped_quote_end",
 541        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 542        "_next_name",
 543    )
 544
 545    def __init__(
 546        self,
 547        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 548        identify: str | bool = False,
 549        normalize: bool = False,
 550        pad: int = 2,
 551        indent: int = 2,
 552        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 553        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 554        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 555        leading_comma: bool = False,
 556        max_text_width: int = 80,
 557        comments: bool = True,
 558        dialect: DialectType = None,
 559    ):
 560        import sqlglot
 561        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 562
 563        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 564        self.identify = identify
 565        self.normalize = normalize
 566        self.pad = pad
 567        self._indent = indent
 568        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 569        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 570        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 571        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 572        self.comments = comments
 573        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 574
 575        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 576        self.normalize_functions = (
 577            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 578        )
 579
 580        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 581        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 582            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 583        )
 584        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 585            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 586        )
 587
 588        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 589
 590    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 591        """
 592        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 593
 594        Args:
 595            expression: The syntax tree.
 596            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 597                it is safer to copy.
 598
 599        Returns:
 600            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 601        """
 602        if copy:
 603            expression = expression.copy()
 604
 605        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 606
 607        self.unsupported_messages = []
 608        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 609
 610        if self.pretty:
 611            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 612
 613        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 614            return sql
 615
 616        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 617            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 618                logger.warning(msg)
 619        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 620            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 621
 622        return sql
 623
 624    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 625        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 626        if (
 627            not expression.parent
 628            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 629            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 630        ):
 631            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 632
 633            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 634
 635        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 636            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 637
 638            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 639
 640        return expression
 641
 642    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 643        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 644            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 645        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 646
 647    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 648        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 649
 650    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 651        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 652
 653    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 654        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 655        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 656        return comment
 657
 658    def maybe_comment(
 659        self,
 660        sql: str,
 661        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 662        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 663        separated: bool = False,
 664    ) -> str:
 665        comments = (
 666            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 667            if self.comments
 668            else None
 669        )
 670
 671        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 672            return sql
 673
 674        comments_sql = " ".join(
 675            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 676        )
 677
 678        if not comments_sql:
 679            return sql
 680
 681        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 682
 683        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 684            return (
 685                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 686                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 687                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 688            )
 689
 690        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 691
 692    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 693        this_sql = self.indent(
 694            (
 695                self.sql(expression)
 696                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 697                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 698            ),
 699            level=1,
 700            pad=0,
 701        )
 702        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 703
 704    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 705        original = self.identify
 706        self.identify = False
 707        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 708        self.identify = original
 709        return result
 710
 711    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 712        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 713            return name.upper()
 714        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 715            return name.lower()
 716        return name
 717
 718    def indent(
 719        self,
 720        sql: str,
 721        level: int = 0,
 722        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 723        skip_first: bool = False,
 724        skip_last: bool = False,
 725    ) -> str:
 726        if not self.pretty:
 727            return sql
 728
 729        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 730        lines = sql.split("\n")
 731
 732        return "\n".join(
 733            (
 734                line
 735                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 736                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 737            )
 738            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 739        )
 740
 741    def sql(
 742        self,
 743        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 744        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 745        comment: bool = True,
 746    ) -> str:
 747        if not expression:
 748            return ""
 749
 750        if isinstance(expression, str):
 751            return expression
 752
 753        if key:
 754            value = expression.args.get(key)
 755            if value:
 756                return self.sql(value)
 757            return ""
 758
 759        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 760
 761        if callable(transform):
 762            sql = transform(self, expression)
 763        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 764            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 765
 766            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 767                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 768            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 769                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 770            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 771                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 772            else:
 773                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 774        else:
 775            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 776
 777        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 778
 779    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 780        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 782        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 783
 784    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 785        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 786        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 787        options = expression.args.get("options")
 788        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 789        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 790        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 791        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 793
 794    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 795        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 796            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 797        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 798        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 799
 800    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 801        return ".".join(
 802            self.sql(part)
 803            for part in (
 804                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 805                expression.args.get("db"),
 806                expression.args.get("table"),
 807                expression.args.get("this"),
 808            )
 809            if part
 810        )
 811
 812    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 813        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 814
 815        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 816            join_mark = ""
 817            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 818
 819        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 820
 821    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 824        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 825        return f"{position}{this}"
 826
 827    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 828        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 830        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 831        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 832        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 833        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 834        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 835        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 836
 837        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 838            kind = ""
 839
 840        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 841
 842    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 845        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 846
 847    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 850            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 851        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 852            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 853        else:
 854            persisted = ""
 855        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 856
 857    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 858        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 859
 860    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 861        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 862            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 863        else:
 864            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865
 866        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 867
 868    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 869        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 870    ) -> str:
 871        this = ""
 872        if expression.this is not None:
 873            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 874            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 875
 876        start = expression.args.get("start")
 877        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 878        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 879        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 880        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 881        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 882        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 883        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 884        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 885        cycle_sql = ""
 886
 887        if cycle is not None:
 888            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 889            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 890
 891        sequence_opts = ""
 892        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 893            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 894            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 895
 896        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 897        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 898
 899        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 900
 901    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 902        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 903    ) -> str:
 904        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 905        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 906        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 907
 908    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 909        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 910    ) -> str:
 911        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 912
 913    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 914        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 915
 916    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 917        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 918
 919    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 920        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 921        if desc is not None:
 922            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 923        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 924
 925    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 928        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 929        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 930        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 931        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 932        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 933
 934    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 935        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 936
 937    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 938        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 939        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 940        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 941
 942        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 943
 944        properties_sql = ""
 945        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 946            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 947        ):
 948            properties_sql = self.sql(
 949                exp.Properties(
 950                    expressions=[
 951                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 953                    ]
 954                )
 955            )
 956
 957        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 958        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 959
 960        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 961        if expression_sql:
 962            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 963
 964            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 965                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 966                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 967                        exp.Properties(
 968                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 969                        ),
 970                        wrapped=False,
 971                    )
 972                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 973                else:
 974                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 975
 976        postindex_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 978            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 980                wrapped=False,
 981                prefix=" ",
 982            )
 983
 984        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 985        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 986        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 987
 988        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 989        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 990
 991        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 993            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 994                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 995                sep=" ",
 996                prefix=" ",
 997                wrapped=False,
 998            )
 999
1000        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1001
1002        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1003        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1004            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1005                exp.Properties(
1006                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1007                ),
1008                sep=" ",
1009                prefix=" ",
1010                wrapped=False,
1011            )
1012
1013        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1014        no_schema_binding = (
1015            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1016        )
1017
1018        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1019        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1020
1021        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1023
1024    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1025        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1026        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1027        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1028        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1029        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1030        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1031        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1032        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1033        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1034        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1035
1036        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1037        if cache is None:
1038            cache_str = ""
1039        elif cache is True:
1040            cache_str = " CACHE"
1041        else:
1042            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1043
1044        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1045        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1046
1047        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1048
1049    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1051        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1052        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1053        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1054
1055    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1056        style = expression.args.get("style")
1057        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1058        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1059
1060    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1061        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1062        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1063
1064    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1065        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1066        if with_:
1067            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1068        return sql
1069
1070    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1071        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1072        recursive = (
1073            "RECURSIVE "
1074            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1075            else ""
1076        )
1077
1078        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1079
1080    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1081        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1082
1083        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1084        if materialized is False:
1085            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1086        elif materialized:
1087            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1088
1089        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1090
1091    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1092        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1094        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1095
1096        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1097            columns = ""
1098            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1099
1100        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1101            alias = self._next_name()
1102
1103        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1104
1105    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1107        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1108            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1109        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1110
1111    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1114            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1115        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1116
1117    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1120            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1121        return this
1122
1123    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1126
1127        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1128            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1129            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1130
1131        if escape:
1132            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1133        else:
1134            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1135
1136        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1137        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1138
1139    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1140        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1141        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1142
1143    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1146        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1147        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1148
1149    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1150        type_value = expression.this
1151
1152        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1153            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1154        else:
1155            type_sql = (
1156                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1157                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1158                else type_value
1159            )
1160
1161        nested = ""
1162        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1163        values = ""
1164
1165        if interior:
1166            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1167                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1168                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1169                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1170                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1171                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1172            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1173                nested = f" {interior}"
1174            else:
1175                nested = f"({interior})"
1176
1177        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1178        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1179            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1181        ):
1182            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1183
1184        return type_sql
1185
1186    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1187        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1188        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1189        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1190        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1191
1192    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1194        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1195        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1196        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1197        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1198        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1199        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1200        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1201        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1202        if self.RETURNING_END:
1203            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1204        else:
1205            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1206        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1207
1208    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1212        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1213        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1214        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1215        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1216        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1217        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1218        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1219        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1220
1221    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1222        return self.set_operations(expression)
1223
1224    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1225        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1226
1227    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1228        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1229        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1230        count = expression.args.get("count")
1231        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1232        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1233            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1234        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1235        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1236
1237    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1238        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1239            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1241            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1242
1243        agg = expression.this
1244        agg_arg = agg.this
1245        cond = expression.expression.this
1246        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1247        return self.sql(agg)
1248
1249    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1250        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1251            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1252            return ""
1253
1254        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1255
1256    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1257        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1258        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1259        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1260        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1261        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1262        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1263        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1264        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1265        if include:
1266            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1267        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1268        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1269        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1270        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1271
1272        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1273
1274    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1275        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1276        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1277        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1278        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1280        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1281        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1282
1283        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1284
1285        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1286        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1287
1288    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1289        text = expression.name
1290        lower = text.lower()
1291        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1292        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1293        if (
1294            expression.quoted
1295            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1296            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1297            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1298        ):
1299            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1300        return text
1301
1302    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1303        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1304        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1305        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1306        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1307        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1308
1309    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1310        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1311        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1312
1313    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1314        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1315
1316    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1317        root_properties = []
1318        with_properties = []
1319
1320        for p in expression.expressions:
1321            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1322            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1323                with_properties.append(p)
1324            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1325                root_properties.append(p)
1326
1327        return self.root_properties(
1328            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1329        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1330
1331    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1332        if properties.expressions:
1333            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1334        return ""
1335
1336    def properties(
1337        self,
1338        properties: exp.Properties,
1339        prefix: str = "",
1340        sep: str = ", ",
1341        suffix: str = "",
1342        wrapped: bool = True,
1343    ) -> str:
1344        if properties.expressions:
1345            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1346            if expressions:
1347                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1348                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1349        return ""
1350
1351    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1352        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1353
1354    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1355        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1356        for p in properties.expressions:
1357            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1358            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1359                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1360            else:
1361                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1362
1363        return properties_locs
1364
1365    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1366        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1367            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1368        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1369
1370    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1371        property_cls = expression.__class__
1372        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1373            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1374
1375        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1376        if not property_name:
1377            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1378
1379        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1380
1381    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1382        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1383            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1384            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1385
1386            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1387            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1388                like = f"({like})"
1389
1390            return like
1391
1392        if expression.expressions:
1393            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1394
1395        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1396        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1397
1398    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1399        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1400        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1401        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1402
1403    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1404        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1405        local = expression.args.get("local")
1406        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1407        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1408        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1409        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1410        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1411
1412    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1413        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1414        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1415        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1416
1417    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1418        if expression.args.get("default"):
1419            property = "DEFAULT"
1420        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1421            property = "ON"
1422        else:
1423            property = "OFF"
1424        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1425
1426    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1427        if expression.args.get("no"):
1428            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1429        if expression.args.get("default"):
1430            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1431
1432        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1433        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1434
1435    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1436        default = expression.args.get("default")
1437        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1438        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1439        if default or minimum or maximum:
1440            if default:
1441                prop = "DEFAULT"
1442            elif minimum:
1443                prop = "MINIMUM"
1444            else:
1445                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1446            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1447        units = expression.args.get("units")
1448        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1449        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1450
1451    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1452        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1453        always = expression.args.get("always")
1454        default = expression.args.get("default")
1455        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1456        never = expression.args.get("never")
1457
1458        if autotemp is not None:
1459            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1460        elif always:
1461            prop = "ALWAYS"
1462        elif default:
1463            prop = "DEFAULT"
1464        elif manual:
1465            prop = "MANUAL"
1466        elif never:
1467            prop = "NEVER"
1468        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1469
1470    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1471        no = expression.args.get("no")
1472        no = " NO" if no else ""
1473        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1474        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1475        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1476        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1477        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1478
1479    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1480        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1481            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1482        if expression.this:
1483            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1485            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1486
1487        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1488        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1489        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1490
1491    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493
1494        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1495        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1496            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1497        else:
1498            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1499
1500        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1501
1502    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1503        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1504        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1505        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1506        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1507        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1508        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1509        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1510
1511    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1512        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1513        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1514        statistics_sql = ""
1515        if statistics is not None:
1516            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1517        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1518
1519    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1520        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1521
1522        if expression.this:
1523            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1524            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1525
1526            if expression.expression:
1527                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1528                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1529
1530            sql = f"{sql})"
1531
1532        return f"{sql})"
1533
1534    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1535        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1536        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1537
1538        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1539            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1540        else:
1541            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1542
1543        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1544        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1545        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1546        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1547        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1548        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1549        if is_function:
1550            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1551        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1552
1553        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1554        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1555        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1556        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1557        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1558        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1559        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1560        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1561
1562        if self.RETURNING_END:
1563            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1564        else:
1565            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1566
1567        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1568        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1569
1570    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1571        return self.set_operations(expression)
1572
1573    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1574        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1575
1576    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1577        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1578
1579    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1580        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1581        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1584        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1585
1586    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1587        return expression.name
1588
1589    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1590        return expression.name
1591
1592    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1593        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1594
1595        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1596        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1597
1598        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1599        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1600        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1601
1602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1603        if expressions:
1604            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1605            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1606
1607        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1608
1609    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1610        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1611
1612    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1613        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1614        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1615        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1616        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1617        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1618        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1619        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1620        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1621        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1622        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1623        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1624        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1625        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1626
1627    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1628        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1629
1630    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1631        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1632        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1633        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1634        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1635
1636    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1638        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1639        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1640        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1641
1642    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1643        return ".".join(
1644            self.sql(part)
1645            for part in (
1646                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1647                expression.args.get("db"),
1648                expression.args.get("this"),
1649            )
1650            if part is not None
1651        )
1652
1653    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1654        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1655        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1656        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1657        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1658        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1659        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1660        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1661        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1662        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1663        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1664        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1665        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1666        joins = self.indent(
1667            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1668        )
1669        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1670
1671        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1672        if file_format:
1673            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1674            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1675            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1676
1677        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1678        if ordinality:
1679            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1680            alias = ""
1681
1682        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1683        if when:
1684            table = f"{table} {when}"
1685
1686        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1687
1688    def tablesample_sql(
1689        self,
1690        expression: exp.TableSample,
1691        sep: str = " AS ",
1692        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1693    ) -> str:
1694        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1695            table = expression.this.copy()
1696            table.set("alias", None)
1697            this = self.sql(table)
1698            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1699        else:
1700            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701            alias = ""
1702
1703        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1704        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1705        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1706        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1707        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1708        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1709        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1710        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1711        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1712
1713        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1714        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1715            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1716
1717        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1718        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1719            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1720
1721        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1722        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1723            expr = f"({expr})"
1724
1725        return (
1726            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1727        )
1728
1729    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1730        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1731
1732        if expression.this:
1733            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1734            if not expressions:
1735                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1736
1737            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1738            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1739            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1740            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1741            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1742
1743        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1744        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1745        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1746        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1747        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1748        if include_nulls is not None:
1749            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1750        else:
1751            nulls = ""
1752        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1753
1754    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1755        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1756        kind = expression.text("kind")
1757        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1758        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1759
1760    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1761        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1762
1763    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1766        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1767        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1768        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1769        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1770        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1771        if self.RETURNING_END:
1772            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1773        else:
1774            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1775        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1776        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1777
1778    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1779        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1780
1781        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1782        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1783            args = self.expressions(expression)
1784            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1785            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1786            values = (
1787                f"({values})"
1788                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1789                else values
1790            )
1791            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1792
1793        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1794        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1795        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1796
1797        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1798
1799        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1800            row = tup.expressions
1801
1802            if i == 0 and column_names:
1803                row = [
1804                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1805                ]
1806
1807            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1808
1809        if self.pretty:
1810            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1811            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1812            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1813            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1814            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1815
1816        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1817        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1818        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1819
1820    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1821        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1822
1823    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1824        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1825        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1826        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1827
1828    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1829        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1830
1831    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1832        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1833        if group_by_all is True:
1834            modifier = " ALL"
1835        elif group_by_all is False:
1836            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1837        else:
1838            modifier = ""
1839
1840        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1841
1842        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1843        grouping_sets = (
1844            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1845        )
1846
1847        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1848        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1849            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1850        else:
1851            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1852            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1853
1854        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1855        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1856            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1857        else:
1858            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1859            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1860
1861        groupings = csv(
1862            grouping_sets,
1863            cube_sql,
1864            rollup_sql,
1865            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1866            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1867        )
1868
1869        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1870            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1871
1872        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1873
1874    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1875        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1876        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1877
1878    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1879        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1880        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1881        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1882        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1883        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1884        return start + connect
1885
1886    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1887        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1888
1889    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1890        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1891            side = None
1892        else:
1893            side = expression.side
1894
1895        op_sql = " ".join(
1896            op
1897            for op in (
1898                expression.method,
1899                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1900                side,
1901                expression.kind,
1902                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1903            )
1904            if op
1905        )
1906        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1907        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1908        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1909        using = expression.args.get("using")
1910
1911        if not on_sql and using:
1912            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1913
1914        this = expression.this
1915        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1916
1917        if on_sql:
1918            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1919            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1920            if using:
1921                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1922            else:
1923                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1924        elif not op_sql:
1925            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1926                return f" {this_sql}"
1927
1928            return f", {this_sql}"
1929
1930        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1931        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1932
1933    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1934        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1936        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1937
1938    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1939        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1940
1941        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1942        if cross_apply is True:
1943            op = "INNER JOIN "
1944        elif cross_apply is False:
1945            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1946        else:
1947            op = ""
1948
1949        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1950
1951    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953
1954        if expression.args.get("view"):
1955            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1956            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1957            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1958            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1959            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1960            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1961
1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1964        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1965
1966    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968
1969        args = [
1970            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1971            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1972            if e
1973        ]
1974
1975        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1976        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1977        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1978        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1979
1980        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1981
1982    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1984        value = expression.expression
1985        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1986        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1987        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1988        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1989
1990    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1991        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1992        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1995        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1996        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1997        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1998        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1999
2000    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2001        expressions = (
2002            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2003        )
2004        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2005        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2006
2007    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2008        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2009
2010    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2011        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2012            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2013            return ""
2014
2015        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2017        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2018        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2019
2020        if wait is not None:
2021            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2022                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2023            else:
2024                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2025
2026        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2027
2028    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2029        text = expression.this or ""
2030        if expression.is_string:
2031            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2032        return text
2033
2034    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2035        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2036            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2037            text = "".join(
2038                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2039            )
2040
2041        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2042            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2043        )
2044
2045    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2046        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2047        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2048        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2049        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2050        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2051        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2052        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2053        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2054        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2055        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2056        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2057
2058    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2059        return "NULL"
2060
2061    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2062        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2063
2064    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2067        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2068        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2069        interpolated_values = [
2070            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2071            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2072        ]
2073        interpolate = (
2074            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2075        )
2076        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2077
2078    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2079        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2080        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2081        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2082        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2083        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2084        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2085        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2086
2087    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2088        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2089
2090    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2091        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2092
2093    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2094        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2095
2096    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2097        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2098        asc = not desc
2099
2100        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2101        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2102        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2103        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2104        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2105
2106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2107
2108        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2109        nulls_sort_change = ""
2110        if nulls_first and (
2111            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2112        ):
2113            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2114        elif (
2115            nulls_last
2116            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2117            and not nulls_are_last
2118        ):
2119            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2120
2121        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2122        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2123            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2124            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2125                self.unsupported(
2126                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2127                )
2128                nulls_sort_change = ""
2129            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2130                if expression.this.is_int:
2131                    self.unsupported(
2132                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2133                    )
2134                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2135                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2136                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2137                nulls_sort_change = ""
2138
2139        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2140        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2141
2142        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2143
2144    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2145        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2146        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2147
2148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2149
2150        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2151
2152    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2153        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2154        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2155        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2156        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2157        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2158        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2159        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2160        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2161        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2162        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2163        definition_sqls = [
2164            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2165            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2166        ]
2167        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2168        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2169        body = "".join(
2170            (
2171                partition,
2172                order,
2173                measures,
2174                rows,
2175                after,
2176                pattern,
2177                define,
2178            )
2179        )
2180        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2181        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2182        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2183
2184    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2185        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2186
2187        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2188            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2189        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2190            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2191
2192        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2193        if options:
2194            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2195
2196        return csv(
2197            *sqls,
2198            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2199            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2200            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2201            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2202            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2203            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2204            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2205            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2206            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2207            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2208            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2209            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2210            options,
2211            sep="",
2212        )
2213
2214    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2215        return ""
2216
2217    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2218        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2219    ) -> t.List[str]:
2220        return [
2221            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2222            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2223        ]
2224
2225    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2226        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2227        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2228        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2229
2230    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2231        into = expression.args.get("into")
2232        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2233            into.pop()
2234
2235        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2236        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2237        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2238        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2239
2240        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2241        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2242            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2243            limit.pop()
2244        else:
2245            top = ""
2246
2247        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2248
2249        if kind:
2250            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2251                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2252            else:
2253                if kind == "STRUCT":
2254                    expressions = self.expressions(
2255                        sqls=[
2256                            self.sql(
2257                                exp.Struct(
2258                                    expressions=[
2259                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2260                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2261                                        else e
2262                                        for e in expression.expressions
2263                                    ]
2264                                )
2265                            )
2266                        ]
2267                    )
2268                kind = ""
2269
2270        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2271        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2272        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2273        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2274        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2275            expression,
2276            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2277            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2278            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2279        )
2280
2281        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2282
2283        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2284            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2285                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2286            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2287                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2288            else:
2289                table_kind = ""
2290            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2291
2292        return sql
2293
2294    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2296        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2297        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2298
2299    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2300        if expression.expressions:
2301            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2302        return ""
2303
2304    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2305        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2306        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2307        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2308        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2309        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2310
2311    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2313        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2314
2315    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2317        kind = expression.text("kind")
2318        if kind:
2319            kind = f"{kind}."
2320        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2321
2322    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2323        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2324
2325    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2326        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2327        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2328
2329        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2330        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2331
2332        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2334
2335    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2336        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2337        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2338
2339    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2340        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2341            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2342            order = expression.args.get("order")
2343
2344            if limit or order:
2345                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2346
2347                if limit:
2348                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2349                if order:
2350                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2351                return self.sql(select)
2352
2353        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2354        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2355
2356        while stack:
2357            node = stack.pop()
2358
2359            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2360                stack.append(node.expression)
2361                stack.append(
2362                    self.maybe_comment(
2363                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2364                        comments=node.comments,
2365                        separated=True,
2366                    )
2367                )
2368                stack.append(node.this)
2369            else:
2370                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2371
2372        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2373        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2374        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2375
2376    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2377        return self.set_operations(expression)
2378
2379    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2380        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2381        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2382        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2383        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2384
2385    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2386        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2387
2388        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2389        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2390
2391        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2392            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2393                alias.append("columns", offset)
2394
2395        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2396            columns = alias.columns
2397            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2398        else:
2399            alias = self.sql(alias)
2400
2401        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2402        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2403            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2404        else:
2405            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2406                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2407            elif offset:
2408                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2409            else:
2410                suffix = alias
2411
2412        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2413
2414    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2415        return ""
2416
2417    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2418        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2419        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2420
2421    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2423        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2424        order = expression.args.get("order")
2425        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2426        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2427        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2428        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2429
2430        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2431
2432        first = expression.args.get("first")
2433        if first is None:
2434            first = ""
2435        else:
2436            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2437
2438        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2439            return f"{this} {alias}"
2440
2441        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2442        return f"{this} ({args})"
2443
2444    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2445        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2446        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2447
2448    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2450        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2451        end = (
2452            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2453            or "CURRENT ROW"
2454        )
2455        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2456
2457    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2460        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2461
2462    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2465        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2466        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2467
2468    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2469        return apply_index_offset(
2470            expression.this,
2471            expression.expressions,
2472            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2473        )
2474
2475    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2476        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2477        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2478        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2479
2480    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2481        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2482
2483    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2485        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2486            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2487                this = self.wrap(this)
2488            return f"ANY{this}"
2489        return f"ANY {this}"
2490
2491    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2492        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2493
2494    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2496        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2497
2498        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2499            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2500            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2501
2502        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2503
2504        if default:
2505            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2506
2507        statements.append("END")
2508
2509        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2510            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2511
2512        return " ".join(statements)
2513
2514    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2517        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2518
2519    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2520        order = expression.args.get("order")
2521        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2522        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2523
2524    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2526        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2527        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2528
2529    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2530        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2531
2532        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2533            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2534        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2535            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2536        else:
2537            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2538
2539    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2540        args = expression.expressions
2541        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2542            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2543
2544        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2545            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2546
2547        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2548            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2549
2550        return args
2551
2552    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2553        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2554
2555        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2556        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2557            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2558
2559        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2560
2561    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2562        return self.func(
2563            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2564        )
2565
2566    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2567        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2568        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2569
2570    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2571        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2572        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2573        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2574        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2575        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2576        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2577        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2578        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2579
2580    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2581        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2582        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2583        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2584        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2585
2586    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2587        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2588
2589    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2590        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2591        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2592        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2593
2594    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2595        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2596
2597    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2598        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2599        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2600
2601    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2602        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2603            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2604            if not callable(transform):
2605                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2606                return ""
2607
2608            return transform(self, expression)
2609
2610        if isinstance(expression, int):
2611            return str(expression)
2612
2613        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2614            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2615            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2616        else:
2617            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2618            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2619
2620        return escaped
2621
2622    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2623        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2624
2625    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2626        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2627        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2628
2629        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2630        if unique_keys is not None:
2631            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2632        else:
2633            unique_keys = ""
2634
2635        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2636        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2637        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2638        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2639
2640        return self.func(
2641            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2642            *expression.expressions,
2643            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2644        )
2645
2646    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2647        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2648
2649    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2650        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2651        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2652        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2653        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2654        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2655        return self.func(
2656            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2657        )
2658
2659    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2661        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2662        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2663        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2664        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2665        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2666        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2667        return self.func(
2668            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2669            this,
2670            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2671        )
2672
2673    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2674        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2675        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2676        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2677
2678        if nested_schema:
2679            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2680
2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2682        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2683        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2684        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2685
2686    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2687        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2688
2689    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2691        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2692        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2693        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2694        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2695        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2696        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2697        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2698        return self.func(
2699            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2700        )
2701
2702    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2705        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2706        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2707        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2708        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2709
2710    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2713        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2714        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2715        with_ = (
2716            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2717            if expressions
2718            else ""
2719        )
2720        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2721
2722    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2723        query = expression.args.get("query")
2724        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2725        field = expression.args.get("field")
2726        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2727
2728        if query:
2729            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2730        elif unnest:
2731            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2732        elif field:
2733            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2734        else:
2735            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2736
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2738
2739    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2740        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2741
2742    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2743        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2744        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2745            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2746        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2747
2748        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2749            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2750            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2751
2752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2753        if this:
2754            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2755            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2756
2757        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2758
2759    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2760        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2761
2762    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2765        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2766        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2767        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2768        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2769
2770    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2771        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2772
2773    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2774        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2775        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2776
2777    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2778        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2779        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2781        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2782
2783    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2784        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2785
2786    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2787        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2788        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2790
2791    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2792        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2793        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2794
2795        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2796            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2797        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2798            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2799
2800        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2801
2802    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2803        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2804
2805    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2808        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2809
2810    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2813        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2814
2815    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2817        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2818        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2819
2820    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2821        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2822
2823    def and_sql(
2824        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2825    ) -> str:
2826        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2827
2828    def or_sql(
2829        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2830    ) -> str:
2831        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2832
2833    def xor_sql(
2834        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2835    ) -> str:
2836        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2837
2838    def connector_sql(
2839        self,
2840        expression: exp.Connector,
2841        op: str,
2842        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2843    ) -> str:
2844        if stack is not None:
2845            if expression.expressions:
2846                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2847            else:
2848                stack.append(expression.right)
2849                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2850                    for comment in expression.comments:
2851                        if comment:
2852                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2853                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2854            return op
2855
2856        stack = [expression]
2857        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2858        ops = set()
2859
2860        while stack:
2861            node = stack.pop()
2862            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2863                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2864            else:
2865                sql = self.sql(node)
2866                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2867                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2868                else:
2869                    sqls.append(sql)
2870
2871        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2872        return sep.join(sqls)
2873
2874    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2875        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2876
2877    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2879
2880    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2881        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2882
2883    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2884        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2885
2886    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2887        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2888
2889    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2890        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2891
2892    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2893        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2894        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2895        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2896        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2897        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2898        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2899        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2900
2901    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2902        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2903        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2904
2905    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2906        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2907
2908    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2909        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2910            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2911        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2912
2913    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2914        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2915
2916    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2918        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2919        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2920        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2921        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2922        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2923
2924    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2927        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2928        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2929        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2930        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2931        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2932        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2933        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2934
2935    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2936        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2937        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2938        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2939        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2940
2941        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2942            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2943
2944        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2945
2946    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2947        return "BEGIN"
2948
2949    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2950        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2951        if chain is not None:
2952            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2953
2954        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2955
2956    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2957        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2958        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2959        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2960
2961    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963
2964        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2965        if dtype:
2966            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2967            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2968            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2969            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2970            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2971
2972        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2973        if default:
2974            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2975
2976        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2977        if comment:
2978            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2979
2980        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2981            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2982
2983        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2984
2985    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2987        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2988            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2989        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
2990
2991    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2992        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2995        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2996        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
2997
2998    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2999        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3000            # Remove db from tables
3001            expression = expression.transform(
3002                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3003            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3005        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3006
3007    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3008        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3009        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3010        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3011        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3012
3013    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3014        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3015
3016        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3017            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3018        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3019            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3020        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3021            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3022        else:
3023            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3024
3025        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3026        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3027        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3028        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3029        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3030
3031    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3032        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3033            return self.expressions(
3034                expression,
3035                key="actions",
3036                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3037            )
3038        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3039
3040    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3041        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3042        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3043        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3044
3045    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3046        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3047
3048    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3049        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3050
3051        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3052            case = exp.case()
3053            for arg in expression.expressions:
3054                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3055            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3056
3057        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3058
3059        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3060        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3061        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3062
3063    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3064        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3065
3066    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3067        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3068
3069    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3070        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3072        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3073        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3074
3075    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3076        return self.sql(
3077            exp.Cast(
3078                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3079                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3080            )
3081        )
3082
3083    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3084        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3085            return self.func(
3086                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3087            )
3088        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3089
3090    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3091        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3092
3093        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3094            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3095
3096        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3097            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3098                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3099
3100        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3101            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3102                return self.sql(
3103                    exp.cast(
3104                        l / r,
3105                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3106                    )
3107                )
3108
3109        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3110
3111    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3113
3114    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3115        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3116
3117    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3118        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3119
3120    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3121        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3122
3123    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3125
3126    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3127        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3128
3129    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3130        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3131
3132    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3133        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3134
3135    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3137
3138    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3140
3141    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3142        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3143
3144    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3145        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3146            return self.sql(
3147                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3148            )
3149        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3150
3151    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3153
3154    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3155        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3156
3157    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3158        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3159
3160    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3161        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3162
3163    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3164        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3165
3166    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3167        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3168
3169    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3170        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3171
3172    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3173        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3174
3175    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3177
3178    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3179        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3180
3181    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3182        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3183
3184    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3186
3187    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3188        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3189
3190    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3191        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3192            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3193            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3194
3195        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3196
3197    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3198        this = expression.this
3199        expr = expression.expression
3200
3201        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3202            this, expr = expr, this
3203        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3204            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3205                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3206
3207            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3208
3209        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3210
3211    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3212        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3213        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3215        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3216        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3217
3218    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3219        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3220        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3221
3222    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3223        args = []
3224
3225        for key in expression.arg_types:
3226            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3227
3228            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3229                for value in arg_value:
3230                    args.append(value)
3231            elif arg_value is not None:
3232                args.append(arg_value)
3233
3234        if self.normalize_functions:
3235            name = expression.sql_name()
3236        else:
3237            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3238
3239        return self.func(name, *args)
3240
3241    def func(
3242        self,
3243        name: str,
3244        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3245        prefix: str = "(",
3246        suffix: str = ")",
3247    ) -> str:
3248        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3249
3250    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3251        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3252        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3253            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3254        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3255
3256    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3257        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3258
3259    def format_time(
3260        self,
3261        expression: exp.Expression,
3262        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3263        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3264    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3265        return format_time(
3266            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3267            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3268            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3269        )
3270
3271    def expressions(
3272        self,
3273        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3274        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3275        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3276        flat: bool = False,
3277        indent: bool = True,
3278        skip_first: bool = False,
3279        skip_last: bool = False,
3280        sep: str = ", ",
3281        prefix: str = "",
3282        dynamic: bool = False,
3283        new_line: bool = False,
3284    ) -> str:
3285        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3286
3287        if not expressions:
3288            return ""
3289
3290        if flat:
3291            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3292
3293        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3294
3295        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3296        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3297            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3298
3299        result_sqls = []
3300        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3301            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3302            if not sql:
3303                continue
3304
3305            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3306
3307            if self.pretty:
3308                if self.leading_comma:
3309                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3310                else:
3311                    result_sqls.append(
3312                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3313                    )
3314            else:
3315                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3316
3317        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3318            if new_line:
3319                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3320                result_sqls.append("")
3321            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3322        else:
3323            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3324        return (
3325            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3326            if indent
3327            else result_sql
3328        )
3329
3330    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3331        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3332        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3333        if flat:
3334            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3335        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3336
3337    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3338        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3339        if not property_name:
3340            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3341        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3342
3343    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3344        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3345
3346    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3347        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3348
3349    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3351        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3352        expressions = (
3353            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3354        )
3355        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3356
3357    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3360        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3361
3362    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3363        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3364
3365    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3366        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3367        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3368        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3369        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3370
3371        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3372        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3373            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3374            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3375            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3376            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3377        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3378            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3379                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3380            else:
3381                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3382        else:
3383            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3384        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3385
3386    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3387        table = expression.this
3388        table_alias = ""
3389
3390        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3391        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3392            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3393            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3394
3395        this = self.sql(table)
3396        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3397        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3398        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3399        sep = self.sep()
3400
3401        return self.prepend_ctes(
3402            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3403        )
3404
3405    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3406        if expression.args.get("format"):
3407            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3408
3409        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3410
3411    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3412        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3413            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3414            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3415
3416        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3417        if not fmt:
3418            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3419            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3420
3421        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3422
3423    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3426        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3427        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3428        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3429
3430    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3432        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3433        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3434        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3435
3436    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3437        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3438
3439    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3440        return ""
3441
3442    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3443        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3444        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3445        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3446        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3447        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3448
3449    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3451        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3452
3453        if having:
3454            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3455
3456        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3457
3458    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3459        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3460        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3461        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3462        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3463        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3464        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3465        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3466        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3467        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3468        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3469        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3470        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3471        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3472
3473    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3474        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3475        if key_block_size:
3476            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3477
3478        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3479        if using:
3480            return f"USING {using}"
3481
3482        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3483        if parser:
3484            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3485
3486        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3487        if comment:
3488            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3489
3490        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3491        if visible is not None:
3492            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3493
3494        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3495        if engine_attr:
3496            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3497
3498        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3499        if secondary_engine_attr:
3500            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3501
3502        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3503        return ""
3504
3505    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3506        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3507        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3508
3509    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3510        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3511        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3513        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3514        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3515        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3517        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3518        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3519        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3520        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3521
3522    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3523        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3524            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3525
3526        case = exp.Case().when(
3527            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3528            expression.args["true"],
3529            copy=False,
3530        )
3531        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3532        if else_cond:
3533            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3534
3535        return self.sql(case)
3536
3537    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3539        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3540        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3541        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3542        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3543        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3544
3545    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3546        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3547
3548    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3549        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3550
3551    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3552        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3553        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3554        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3555        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3556        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3557        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3558
3559    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3561        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3562        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3563
3564    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3566        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3567        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3568
3569    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3570        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3571
3572    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3573        arg = expression.this
3574        if not arg.type:
3575            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3576
3577            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3578
3579        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3580            return self.sql(arg)
3581
3582        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3583        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3584
3585    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3586        this = expression.this
3587        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3588            return self.sql(this)
3589
3590        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3591
3592    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3593        this = expression.this
3594        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3595            return self.sql(this)
3596
3597        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3598
3599    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3600        this = expression.this
3601        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3602
3603        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3604            return self.sql(
3605                exp.cast(
3606                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3607                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3608                )
3609            )
3610
3611        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3612            return self.sql(this)
3613
3614        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3615
3616    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3617        return self.sql(
3618            exp.func(
3619                "DATEDIFF",
3620                expression.this,
3621                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3622                "day",
3623            )
3624        )
3625
3626    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3627        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3628            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3629
3630        unit = expression.text("unit")
3631        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3632            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3633
3634        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3635
3636    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3637        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3638
3639        return self.func(
3640            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3641        )
3642
3643    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3644        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3645            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3646            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3647            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3648            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3649
3650        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3651
3652        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3653        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3654            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3655
3656        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3657
3658    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3659        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3660        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3661
3662    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3663        expression.set(
3664            "expressions",
3665            [
3666                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3667                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3668                else e
3669                for e in expression.expressions
3670            ],
3671        )
3672
3673        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3674
3675    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3676        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3677        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3678
3679        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3680
3681    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3682        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3683        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3684
3685        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3686
3687        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3688        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3689
3690        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3691        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3692
3693        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3694        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3695
3696        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3697        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3698
3699        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3700
3701    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3702    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3703    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3704        to = expression.this
3705        value = expression.expression
3706        style = expression.args.get("style")
3707        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3708        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3709
3710        if not to or not value:
3711            return ""
3712
3713        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3714        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3715            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3716
3717        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3718        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3719
3720        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3721        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3722            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3723
3724            style_value = style.name
3725            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3726            if not converted_style:
3727                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3728
3729            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3730
3731            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3732                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3733            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3734                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3735            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3736                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3737            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3738                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3739
3740        if not transformed:
3741            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3742
3743        return self.sql(transformed)
3744
3745    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3746        this = expression.this
3747        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3748            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3749            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3750
3751        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3752            return f".{this}"
3753
3754        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3755        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3756
3757    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3758        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3759        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3760
3761    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3762        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3763            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3764
3765            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3766
3767        return expression
3768
3769    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3770        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3771            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3772            mods = sorted(
3773                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3774                key=lambda x: 0
3775                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3776                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3777            )
3778
3779            if mods:
3780                mod = mods[0]
3781                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3782                this.meta["inline"] = True
3783                mod.this.replace(this)
3784                return self.sql(expression.this)
3785
3786            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3787
3788            if agg_func:
3789                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3790
3791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3792
3793    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3794        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3795        if self.pretty:
3796            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3797        return string
3798
3799    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3800        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3801        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3802
3803        if not value:
3804            return option
3805
3806        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3807
3808        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3809
3810    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3811        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3812        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3813            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3814            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3815            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3816        else:
3817            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3818            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3819            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3820
3821        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3822        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3823
3824        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3825        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3826
3827        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3828        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3829
3830        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3831        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3832
3833        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3834
3835    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3837        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3838
3839        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3840        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3841        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3842        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3843
3844        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3845        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3846        if params:
3847            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3848
3849        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 344    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 345
 346    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 347    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 348
 349    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 350    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 351
 352    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 353    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 354
 355    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 356        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 363        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 365        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 366    }
 367
 368    STAR_MAPPING = {
 369        "except": "EXCEPT",
 370        "replace": "REPLACE",
 371    }
 372
 373    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 374        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 375        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 376        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 377        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 378        "DAYS": "DAY",
 379        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 380        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 381        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 382        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 383    }
 384
 385    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 386        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 387        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 388        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 389        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 390        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 391            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 392            if e.args.get("windows")
 393            else ""
 394        ),
 395    }
 396
 397    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 398
 399    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 400
 401    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 402    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 403
 404    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 405        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 406        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 410        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 425        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 426        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 427        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 440        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 446        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 449        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 452        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 471        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 478        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481    }
 482
 483    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 484    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 485
 486    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 487    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 488        exp.Create,
 489        exp.Delete,
 490        exp.Drop,
 491        exp.From,
 492        exp.Insert,
 493        exp.Join,
 494        exp.Select,
 495        exp.Union,
 496        exp.Update,
 497        exp.Where,
 498        exp.With,
 499    )
 500
 501    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 502    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 503        exp.Binary,
 504        exp.Union,
 505    )
 506
 507    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 508    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 509        exp.Column,
 510        exp.Literal,
 511        exp.Neg,
 512        exp.Paren,
 513    )
 514
 515    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 516        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 517        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 518        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 519        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 520    }
 521
 522    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 523    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 524
 525    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 526
 527    __slots__ = (
 528        "pretty",
 529        "identify",
 530        "normalize",
 531        "pad",
 532        "_indent",
 533        "normalize_functions",
 534        "unsupported_level",
 535        "max_unsupported",
 536        "leading_comma",
 537        "max_text_width",
 538        "comments",
 539        "dialect",
 540        "unsupported_messages",
 541        "_escaped_quote_end",
 542        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 543        "_next_name",
 544    )
 545
 546    def __init__(
 547        self,
 548        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 549        identify: str | bool = False,
 550        normalize: bool = False,
 551        pad: int = 2,
 552        indent: int = 2,
 553        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 554        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 555        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 556        leading_comma: bool = False,
 557        max_text_width: int = 80,
 558        comments: bool = True,
 559        dialect: DialectType = None,
 560    ):
 561        import sqlglot
 562        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 563
 564        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 565        self.identify = identify
 566        self.normalize = normalize
 567        self.pad = pad
 568        self._indent = indent
 569        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 570        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 571        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 572        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 573        self.comments = comments
 574        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 575
 576        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 577        self.normalize_functions = (
 578            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 579        )
 580
 581        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 582        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 583            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 584        )
 585        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 587        )
 588
 589        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 590
 591    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 592        """
 593        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 594
 595        Args:
 596            expression: The syntax tree.
 597            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 598                it is safer to copy.
 599
 600        Returns:
 601            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 602        """
 603        if copy:
 604            expression = expression.copy()
 605
 606        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 607
 608        self.unsupported_messages = []
 609        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 610
 611        if self.pretty:
 612            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 613
 614        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 615            return sql
 616
 617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 618            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 619                logger.warning(msg)
 620        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 621            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 622
 623        return sql
 624
 625    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 626        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 627        if (
 628            not expression.parent
 629            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 630            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 631        ):
 632            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 633
 634            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 635
 636        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 637            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 638
 639            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 640
 641        return expression
 642
 643    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 644        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 645            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 646        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 647
 648    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 649        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 650
 651    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 652        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 653
 654    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 655        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 656        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 657        return comment
 658
 659    def maybe_comment(
 660        self,
 661        sql: str,
 662        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 663        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 664        separated: bool = False,
 665    ) -> str:
 666        comments = (
 667            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 668            if self.comments
 669            else None
 670        )
 671
 672        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 673            return sql
 674
 675        comments_sql = " ".join(
 676            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 677        )
 678
 679        if not comments_sql:
 680            return sql
 681
 682        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 683
 684        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 685            return (
 686                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 687                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 688                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 689            )
 690
 691        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 692
 693    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 694        this_sql = self.indent(
 695            (
 696                self.sql(expression)
 697                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 698                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 699            ),
 700            level=1,
 701            pad=0,
 702        )
 703        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 704
 705    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 706        original = self.identify
 707        self.identify = False
 708        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 709        self.identify = original
 710        return result
 711
 712    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 713        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 714            return name.upper()
 715        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 716            return name.lower()
 717        return name
 718
 719    def indent(
 720        self,
 721        sql: str,
 722        level: int = 0,
 723        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 724        skip_first: bool = False,
 725        skip_last: bool = False,
 726    ) -> str:
 727        if not self.pretty:
 728            return sql
 729
 730        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 731        lines = sql.split("\n")
 732
 733        return "\n".join(
 734            (
 735                line
 736                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 737                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 738            )
 739            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 740        )
 741
 742    def sql(
 743        self,
 744        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 745        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 746        comment: bool = True,
 747    ) -> str:
 748        if not expression:
 749            return ""
 750
 751        if isinstance(expression, str):
 752            return expression
 753
 754        if key:
 755            value = expression.args.get(key)
 756            if value:
 757                return self.sql(value)
 758            return ""
 759
 760        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 761
 762        if callable(transform):
 763            sql = transform(self, expression)
 764        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 765            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 766
 767            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 768                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 769            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 770                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 771            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 772                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 773            else:
 774                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 775        else:
 776            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 777
 778        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 779
 780    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 783        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 784
 785    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 786        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 787        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        options = expression.args.get("options")
 789        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 790        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 791        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 792        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 794
 795    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 796        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 797            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 798        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 799        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 800
 801    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 802        return ".".join(
 803            self.sql(part)
 804            for part in (
 805                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 806                expression.args.get("db"),
 807                expression.args.get("table"),
 808                expression.args.get("this"),
 809            )
 810            if part
 811        )
 812
 813    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 814        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 815
 816        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 817            join_mark = ""
 818            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 819
 820        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 821
 822    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 825        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 826        return f"{position}{this}"
 827
 828    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 829        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 831        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 832        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 833        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 834        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 835        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 836        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 837
 838        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 839            kind = ""
 840
 841        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 842
 843    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 846        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 847
 848    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 851            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 852        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 853            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 854        else:
 855            persisted = ""
 856        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 857
 858    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 859        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 860
 861    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 862        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 863            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 864        else:
 865            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866
 867        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 868
 869    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 870        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 871    ) -> str:
 872        this = ""
 873        if expression.this is not None:
 874            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 875            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 876
 877        start = expression.args.get("start")
 878        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 879        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 880        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 881        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 882        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 883        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 884        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 885        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 886        cycle_sql = ""
 887
 888        if cycle is not None:
 889            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 890            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 891
 892        sequence_opts = ""
 893        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 894            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 895            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 896
 897        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 898        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 899
 900        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 901
 902    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 903        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 904    ) -> str:
 905        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 906        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 907        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 908
 909    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 910        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 911    ) -> str:
 912        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 913
 914    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 915        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 916
 917    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 918        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 919
 920    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 921        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 922        if desc is not None:
 923            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 924        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 925
 926    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 929        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 930        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 931        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 932        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 933        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 934
 935    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 937
 938    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 940        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 941        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 942
 943        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 944
 945        properties_sql = ""
 946        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 947            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 948        ):
 949            properties_sql = self.sql(
 950                exp.Properties(
 951                    expressions=[
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 953                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 954                    ]
 955                )
 956            )
 957
 958        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 959        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 960
 961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 962        if expression_sql:
 963            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 964
 965            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 966                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 967                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 968                        exp.Properties(
 969                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 970                        ),
 971                        wrapped=False,
 972                    )
 973                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 974                else:
 975                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 976
 977        postindex_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 979            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 981                wrapped=False,
 982                prefix=" ",
 983            )
 984
 985        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 986        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 987        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 988
 989        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 990        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 991
 992        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 993        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 994            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 995                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 996                sep=" ",
 997                prefix=" ",
 998                wrapped=False,
 999            )
1000
1001        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1002
1003        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1005            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(
1007                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1008                ),
1009                sep=" ",
1010                prefix=" ",
1011                wrapped=False,
1012            )
1013
1014        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1015        no_schema_binding = (
1016            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1017        )
1018
1019        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1020        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1021
1022        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1024
1025    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1026        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1027        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1028        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1029        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1030        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1031        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1032        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1033        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1034        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1035        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1036
1037        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1038        if cache is None:
1039            cache_str = ""
1040        elif cache is True:
1041            cache_str = " CACHE"
1042        else:
1043            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1044
1045        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1047
1048        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1049
1050    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1053        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1054        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1055
1056    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1057        style = expression.args.get("style")
1058        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1059        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1060
1061    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1062        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1063        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1064
1065    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1066        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1067        if with_:
1068            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1069        return sql
1070
1071    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1072        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1073        recursive = (
1074            "RECURSIVE "
1075            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1076            else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1080
1081    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1082        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1083
1084        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1085        if materialized is False:
1086            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1087        elif materialized:
1088            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1089
1090        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1091
1092    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1093        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1095        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1096
1097        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1098            columns = ""
1099            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1100
1101        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1102            alias = self._next_name()
1103
1104        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1105
1106    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1111
1112    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1116        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1117
1118    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1121            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1122        return this
1123
1124    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1127
1128        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1129            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1130            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1131
1132        if escape:
1133            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1134        else:
1135            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1136
1137        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1138        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1139
1140    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1141        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1143
1144    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1147        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1148        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1149
1150    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1151        type_value = expression.this
1152
1153        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1154            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1155        else:
1156            type_sql = (
1157                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1158                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1159                else type_value
1160            )
1161
1162        nested = ""
1163        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        values = ""
1165
1166        if interior:
1167            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1168                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1169                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1170                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1171                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1172                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1173            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1174                nested = f" {interior}"
1175            else:
1176                nested = f"({interior})"
1177
1178        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1179        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1181            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1182        ):
1183            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1184
1185        return type_sql
1186
1187    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1188        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1189        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1190        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1191        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1192
1193    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1196        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1197        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1200        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1201        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1202        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1203        if self.RETURNING_END:
1204            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1205        else:
1206            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1208
1209    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1213        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1214        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1215        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1216        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1217        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1218        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1219        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1220        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1221
1222    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1223        return self.set_operations(expression)
1224
1225    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1226        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1227
1228    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1229        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1230        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1231        count = expression.args.get("count")
1232        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1233        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1234            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1235        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1236        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1237
1238    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1239        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1240            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1242            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1243
1244        agg = expression.this
1245        agg_arg = agg.this
1246        cond = expression.expression.this
1247        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1248        return self.sql(agg)
1249
1250    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1251        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1252            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1253            return ""
1254
1255        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1256
1257    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1258        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1259        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1260        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1261        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1262        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1263        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1264        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1265        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1266        if include:
1267            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1268        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1269        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1270        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1271        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1272
1273        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1274
1275    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1276        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1277        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1278        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1279        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1281        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1282        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1283
1284        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1285
1286        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1287        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1288
1289    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1290        text = expression.name
1291        lower = text.lower()
1292        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1293        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1294        if (
1295            expression.quoted
1296            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1297            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1298            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1299        ):
1300            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1301        return text
1302
1303    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1304        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1305        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1306        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1307        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1308        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1309
1310    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1311        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1312        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1313
1314    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1315        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1316
1317    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1318        root_properties = []
1319        with_properties = []
1320
1321        for p in expression.expressions:
1322            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1323            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1324                with_properties.append(p)
1325            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1326                root_properties.append(p)
1327
1328        return self.root_properties(
1329            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1330        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1331
1332    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1333        if properties.expressions:
1334            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1335        return ""
1336
1337    def properties(
1338        self,
1339        properties: exp.Properties,
1340        prefix: str = "",
1341        sep: str = ", ",
1342        suffix: str = "",
1343        wrapped: bool = True,
1344    ) -> str:
1345        if properties.expressions:
1346            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1347            if expressions:
1348                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1349                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1350        return ""
1351
1352    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1353        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1354
1355    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1356        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1357        for p in properties.expressions:
1358            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1359            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1360                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1361            else:
1362                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1363
1364        return properties_locs
1365
1366    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1368            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1370
1371    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1372        property_cls = expression.__class__
1373        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1374            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1375
1376        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1377        if not property_name:
1378            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1379
1380        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1381
1382    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1383        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1384            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1385            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1386
1387            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1388            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1389                like = f"({like})"
1390
1391            return like
1392
1393        if expression.expressions:
1394            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1395
1396        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1397        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1398
1399    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1400        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1401        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1402        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1403
1404    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1405        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1406        local = expression.args.get("local")
1407        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1408        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1409        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1410        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1411        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1412
1413    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1414        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1415        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1416        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1417
1418    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1419        if expression.args.get("default"):
1420            property = "DEFAULT"
1421        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1422            property = "ON"
1423        else:
1424            property = "OFF"
1425        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1426
1427    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1428        if expression.args.get("no"):
1429            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1430        if expression.args.get("default"):
1431            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1432
1433        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1434        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1435
1436    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1437        default = expression.args.get("default")
1438        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1439        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1440        if default or minimum or maximum:
1441            if default:
1442                prop = "DEFAULT"
1443            elif minimum:
1444                prop = "MINIMUM"
1445            else:
1446                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1447            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1448        units = expression.args.get("units")
1449        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1450        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1451
1452    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1453        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1454        always = expression.args.get("always")
1455        default = expression.args.get("default")
1456        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1457        never = expression.args.get("never")
1458
1459        if autotemp is not None:
1460            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1461        elif always:
1462            prop = "ALWAYS"
1463        elif default:
1464            prop = "DEFAULT"
1465        elif manual:
1466            prop = "MANUAL"
1467        elif never:
1468            prop = "NEVER"
1469        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1470
1471    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1472        no = expression.args.get("no")
1473        no = " NO" if no else ""
1474        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1475        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1476        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1477        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1478        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1479
1480    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1481        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1482            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1483        if expression.this:
1484            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1485            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1486            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1487
1488        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1489        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1490        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1491
1492    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494
1495        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1496        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1497            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1498        else:
1499            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1500
1501        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1502
1503    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1504        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1505        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1506        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1507        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1508        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1509        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1510        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1511
1512    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1513        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1514        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1515        statistics_sql = ""
1516        if statistics is not None:
1517            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1518        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1519
1520    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1521        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1522
1523        if expression.this:
1524            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1526
1527            if expression.expression:
1528                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1529                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1530
1531            sql = f"{sql})"
1532
1533        return f"{sql})"
1534
1535    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1536        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1537        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1538
1539        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1540            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1541        else:
1542            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1543
1544        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1545        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1546        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1547        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1548        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1549        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1550        if is_function:
1551            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1552        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1553
1554        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1555        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1556        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1557        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1558        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1559        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1560        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1561        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1562
1563        if self.RETURNING_END:
1564            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1565        else:
1566            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1567
1568        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1569        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1570
1571    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1572        return self.set_operations(expression)
1573
1574    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1575        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1576
1577    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1578        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1579
1580    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1582        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1584        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1585        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1586
1587    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1588        return expression.name
1589
1590    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1591        return expression.name
1592
1593    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1594        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1595
1596        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1597        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1598
1599        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1600        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1601        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1602
1603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1604        if expressions:
1605            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1606            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1607
1608        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1609
1610    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1611        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1612
1613    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1614        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1615        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1616        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1617        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1618        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1619        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1620        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1621        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1622        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1623        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1624        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1625        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1626        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1627
1628    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1629        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1630
1631    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1632        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1633        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1634        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1635        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1636
1637    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1639        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1640        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1641        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1642
1643    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1644        return ".".join(
1645            self.sql(part)
1646            for part in (
1647                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1648                expression.args.get("db"),
1649                expression.args.get("this"),
1650            )
1651            if part is not None
1652        )
1653
1654    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1655        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1656        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1657        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1658        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1659        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1660        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1661        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1662        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1663        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1664        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1665        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1666        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1667        joins = self.indent(
1668            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1669        )
1670        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1671
1672        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1673        if file_format:
1674            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1675            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1676            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1677
1678        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1679        if ordinality:
1680            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1681            alias = ""
1682
1683        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1684        if when:
1685            table = f"{table} {when}"
1686
1687        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1688
1689    def tablesample_sql(
1690        self,
1691        expression: exp.TableSample,
1692        sep: str = " AS ",
1693        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1694    ) -> str:
1695        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1696            table = expression.this.copy()
1697            table.set("alias", None)
1698            this = self.sql(table)
1699            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1700        else:
1701            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702            alias = ""
1703
1704        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1705        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1706        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1707        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1708        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1709        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1710        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1711        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1712        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1713
1714        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1715        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1716            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1717
1718        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1719        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1720            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1721
1722        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1723        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1724            expr = f"({expr})"
1725
1726        return (
1727            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1728        )
1729
1730    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1731        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1732
1733        if expression.this:
1734            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735            if not expressions:
1736                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1737
1738            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1739            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1740            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1741            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1742            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1743
1744        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1745        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1746        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1747        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1748        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1749        if include_nulls is not None:
1750            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1751        else:
1752            nulls = ""
1753        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1754
1755    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1756        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1757        kind = expression.text("kind")
1758        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1759        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1760
1761    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1762        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1763
1764    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1766        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1767        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1768        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1769        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1770        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1771        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1772        if self.RETURNING_END:
1773            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1774        else:
1775            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1776        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1778
1779    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1780        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1781
1782        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1783        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1784            args = self.expressions(expression)
1785            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1786            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1787            values = (
1788                f"({values})"
1789                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1790                else values
1791            )
1792            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1793
1794        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1795        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1796        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1797
1798        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1799
1800        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1801            row = tup.expressions
1802
1803            if i == 0 and column_names:
1804                row = [
1805                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1806                ]
1807
1808            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1809
1810        if self.pretty:
1811            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1812            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1813            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1814            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1815            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1816
1817        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1818        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1819        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1820
1821    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1822        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1823
1824    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1825        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1826        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1827        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1828
1829    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1830        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1831
1832    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1833        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1834        if group_by_all is True:
1835            modifier = " ALL"
1836        elif group_by_all is False:
1837            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1838        else:
1839            modifier = ""
1840
1841        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1842
1843        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1844        grouping_sets = (
1845            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1846        )
1847
1848        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1849        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1850            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1851        else:
1852            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1853            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1854
1855        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1856        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1857            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1858        else:
1859            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1860            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1861
1862        groupings = csv(
1863            grouping_sets,
1864            cube_sql,
1865            rollup_sql,
1866            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1867            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1868        )
1869
1870        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1871            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1872
1873        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1874
1875    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1876        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1877        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1878
1879    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1880        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1881        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1882        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1883        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1884        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1885        return start + connect
1886
1887    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1888        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1889
1890    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1891        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1892            side = None
1893        else:
1894            side = expression.side
1895
1896        op_sql = " ".join(
1897            op
1898            for op in (
1899                expression.method,
1900                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1901                side,
1902                expression.kind,
1903                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1904            )
1905            if op
1906        )
1907        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1908        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1909        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1910        using = expression.args.get("using")
1911
1912        if not on_sql and using:
1913            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1914
1915        this = expression.this
1916        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1917
1918        if on_sql:
1919            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1920            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1921            if using:
1922                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1923            else:
1924                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1925        elif not op_sql:
1926            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1927                return f" {this_sql}"
1928
1929            return f", {this_sql}"
1930
1931        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1932        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1933
1934    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1935        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1937        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1938
1939    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1940        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1941
1942        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1943        if cross_apply is True:
1944            op = "INNER JOIN "
1945        elif cross_apply is False:
1946            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1947        else:
1948            op = ""
1949
1950        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1951
1952    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954
1955        if expression.args.get("view"):
1956            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1957            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1958            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1959            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1960            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1961            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1962
1963        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1964        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1965        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1966
1967    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969
1970        args = [
1971            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1972            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1973            if e
1974        ]
1975
1976        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1977        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1978        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1979        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1980
1981        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1982
1983    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        value = expression.expression
1986        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1987        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1988        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1989        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1990
1991    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1992        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1993        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1996        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1997        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1998        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1999        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2000
2001    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2002        expressions = (
2003            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2004        )
2005        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2006        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2007
2008    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2009        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2010
2011    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2012        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2013            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2014            return ""
2015
2016        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2017        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2018        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2019        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2020
2021        if wait is not None:
2022            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2023                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2024            else:
2025                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2026
2027        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2028
2029    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2030        text = expression.this or ""
2031        if expression.is_string:
2032            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2033        return text
2034
2035    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2036        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2037            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2038            text = "".join(
2039                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2040            )
2041
2042        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2043            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2044        )
2045
2046    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2047        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2048        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2049        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2050        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2051        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2052        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2053        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2054        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2055        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2056        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2057        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2058
2059    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2060        return "NULL"
2061
2062    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2063        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2064
2065    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2068        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2069        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2070        interpolated_values = [
2071            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2072            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2073        ]
2074        interpolate = (
2075            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2076        )
2077        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2078
2079    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2080        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2081        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2082        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2083        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2084        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2085        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2086        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2087
2088    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2089        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2090
2091    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2092        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2093
2094    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2095        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2096
2097    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2098        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2099        asc = not desc
2100
2101        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2102        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2103        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2104        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2105        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2106
2107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2108
2109        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2110        nulls_sort_change = ""
2111        if nulls_first and (
2112            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2113        ):
2114            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2115        elif (
2116            nulls_last
2117            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2118            and not nulls_are_last
2119        ):
2120            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2121
2122        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2123        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2124            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2125            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2126                self.unsupported(
2127                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2128                )
2129                nulls_sort_change = ""
2130            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2131                if expression.this.is_int:
2132                    self.unsupported(
2133                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2134                    )
2135                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2136                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2137                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2138                nulls_sort_change = ""
2139
2140        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2141        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2142
2143        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2144
2145    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2146        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2147        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2148
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150
2151        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2152
2153    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2154        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2155        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2156        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2157        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2158        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2159        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2160        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2161        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2162        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2163        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2164        definition_sqls = [
2165            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2166            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2167        ]
2168        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2169        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2170        body = "".join(
2171            (
2172                partition,
2173                order,
2174                measures,
2175                rows,
2176                after,
2177                pattern,
2178                define,
2179            )
2180        )
2181        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2182        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2183        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2184
2185    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2186        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2187
2188        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2189            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2190        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2191            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2192
2193        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2194        if options:
2195            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2196
2197        return csv(
2198            *sqls,
2199            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2200            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2201            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2202            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2203            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2204            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2205            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2206            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2207            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2208            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2209            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2210            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2211            options,
2212            sep="",
2213        )
2214
2215    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2216        return ""
2217
2218    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2219        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2220    ) -> t.List[str]:
2221        return [
2222            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2223            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2224        ]
2225
2226    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2227        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2228        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2229        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2230
2231    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2232        into = expression.args.get("into")
2233        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2234            into.pop()
2235
2236        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2237        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2238        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2239        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2240
2241        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2242        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2243            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2244            limit.pop()
2245        else:
2246            top = ""
2247
2248        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2249
2250        if kind:
2251            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2252                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2253            else:
2254                if kind == "STRUCT":
2255                    expressions = self.expressions(
2256                        sqls=[
2257                            self.sql(
2258                                exp.Struct(
2259                                    expressions=[
2260                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2261                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2262                                        else e
2263                                        for e in expression.expressions
2264                                    ]
2265                                )
2266                            )
2267                        ]
2268                    )
2269                kind = ""
2270
2271        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2272        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2273        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2274        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2275        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2276            expression,
2277            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2278            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2279            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2280        )
2281
2282        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2283
2284        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2285            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2286                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2287            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2288                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2289            else:
2290                table_kind = ""
2291            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2292
2293        return sql
2294
2295    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2298        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2299
2300    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2301        if expression.expressions:
2302            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2303        return ""
2304
2305    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2306        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2307        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2308        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2309        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2310        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2311
2312    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2314        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2315
2316    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        kind = expression.text("kind")
2319        if kind:
2320            kind = f"{kind}."
2321        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2322
2323    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2324        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2325
2326    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2327        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2328        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2329
2330        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2331        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2332
2333        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2334        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2335
2336    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2337        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2338        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2339
2340    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2341        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2342            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2343            order = expression.args.get("order")
2344
2345            if limit or order:
2346                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2347
2348                if limit:
2349                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2350                if order:
2351                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2352                return self.sql(select)
2353
2354        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2355        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2356
2357        while stack:
2358            node = stack.pop()
2359
2360            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2361                stack.append(node.expression)
2362                stack.append(
2363                    self.maybe_comment(
2364                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2365                        comments=node.comments,
2366                        separated=True,
2367                    )
2368                )
2369                stack.append(node.this)
2370            else:
2371                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2372
2373        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2374        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2376
2377    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2378        return self.set_operations(expression)
2379
2380    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2381        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2382        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2383        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2384        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2385
2386    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2387        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2388
2389        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2390        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2391
2392        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2393            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2394                alias.append("columns", offset)
2395
2396        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2397            columns = alias.columns
2398            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2399        else:
2400            alias = self.sql(alias)
2401
2402        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2403        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2404            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2405        else:
2406            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2407                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2408            elif offset:
2409                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2410            else:
2411                suffix = alias
2412
2413        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2414
2415    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2416        return ""
2417
2418    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2419        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2420        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2421
2422    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2425        order = expression.args.get("order")
2426        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2427        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2428        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2429        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2430
2431        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2432
2433        first = expression.args.get("first")
2434        if first is None:
2435            first = ""
2436        else:
2437            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2438
2439        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2440            return f"{this} {alias}"
2441
2442        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2443        return f"{this} ({args})"
2444
2445    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2446        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2447        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2448
2449    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2450        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2451        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2452        end = (
2453            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2454            or "CURRENT ROW"
2455        )
2456        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2457
2458    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2460        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2461        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2462
2463    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2466        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2467        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2468
2469    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2470        return apply_index_offset(
2471            expression.this,
2472            expression.expressions,
2473            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2474        )
2475
2476    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2477        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2478        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2479        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2480
2481    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2482        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2483
2484    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2487            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2488                this = self.wrap(this)
2489            return f"ANY{this}"
2490        return f"ANY {this}"
2491
2492    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2493        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2494
2495    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2498
2499        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2500            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2501            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2502
2503        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2504
2505        if default:
2506            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2507
2508        statements.append("END")
2509
2510        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2511            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2512
2513        return " ".join(statements)
2514
2515    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2518        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2519
2520    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2521        order = expression.args.get("order")
2522        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2523        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2524
2525    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2527        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2528        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2529
2530    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2531        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2532
2533        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2534            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2535        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2536            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2537        else:
2538            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2539
2540    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2541        args = expression.expressions
2542        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2543            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2544
2545        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2546            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2547
2548        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2549            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2550
2551        return args
2552
2553    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2554        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2555
2556        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2557        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2558            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2559
2560        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2561
2562    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2563        return self.func(
2564            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2565        )
2566
2567    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2569        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2570
2571    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2573        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2574        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2575        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2576        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2577        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2578        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2579        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2580
2581    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2582        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2583        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2584        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2585        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2586
2587    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2588        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2589
2590    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2591        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2592        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2593        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2594
2595    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2596        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2597
2598    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2599        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2600        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2601
2602    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2603        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2604            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2605            if not callable(transform):
2606                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2607                return ""
2608
2609            return transform(self, expression)
2610
2611        if isinstance(expression, int):
2612            return str(expression)
2613
2614        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2615            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2616            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2617        else:
2618            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2619            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2620
2621        return escaped
2622
2623    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2624        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2625
2626    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2627        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2628        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2629
2630        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2631        if unique_keys is not None:
2632            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2633        else:
2634            unique_keys = ""
2635
2636        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2637        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2638        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2639        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2640
2641        return self.func(
2642            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2643            *expression.expressions,
2644            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2645        )
2646
2647    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2648        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2649
2650    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2651        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2652        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2653        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2654        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2655        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2656        return self.func(
2657            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2658        )
2659
2660    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2662        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2663        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2664        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2665        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2666        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2667        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2668        return self.func(
2669            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2670            this,
2671            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2672        )
2673
2674    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2676        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2677        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2678
2679        if nested_schema:
2680            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2681
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2684        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2685        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2686
2687    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2688        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2689
2690    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2692        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2693        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2694        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2695        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2696        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2697        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2698        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2699        return self.func(
2700            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2701        )
2702
2703    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2706        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2707        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2708        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2709        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2710
2711    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2715        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2716        with_ = (
2717            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2718            if expressions
2719            else ""
2720        )
2721        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2722
2723    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2724        query = expression.args.get("query")
2725        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2726        field = expression.args.get("field")
2727        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2728
2729        if query:
2730            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2731        elif unnest:
2732            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2733        elif field:
2734            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2735        else:
2736            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2737
2738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2739
2740    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2741        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2742
2743    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2744        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2745        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2746            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2747        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2748
2749        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2750            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2751            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2752
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        if this:
2755            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2756            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2757
2758        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2759
2760    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2761        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2762
2763    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2766        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2767        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2768        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2769        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2770
2771    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2772        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2773
2774    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2775        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2776        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2777
2778    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2779        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2780        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2781        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2782        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2783
2784    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2785        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2786
2787    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2788        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2789        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2791
2792    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2793        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2794        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2795
2796        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2797            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2798        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2799            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2800
2801        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2802
2803    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2804        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2805
2806    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2808        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2809        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2810
2811    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2814        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2815
2816    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2818        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2819        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2820
2821    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2823
2824    def and_sql(
2825        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2826    ) -> str:
2827        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2828
2829    def or_sql(
2830        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2831    ) -> str:
2832        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2833
2834    def xor_sql(
2835        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2836    ) -> str:
2837        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2838
2839    def connector_sql(
2840        self,
2841        expression: exp.Connector,
2842        op: str,
2843        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2844    ) -> str:
2845        if stack is not None:
2846            if expression.expressions:
2847                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2848            else:
2849                stack.append(expression.right)
2850                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2851                    for comment in expression.comments:
2852                        if comment:
2853                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2854                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2855            return op
2856
2857        stack = [expression]
2858        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2859        ops = set()
2860
2861        while stack:
2862            node = stack.pop()
2863            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2864                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2865            else:
2866                sql = self.sql(node)
2867                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2868                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2869                else:
2870                    sqls.append(sql)
2871
2872        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2873        return sep.join(sqls)
2874
2875    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2876        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2877
2878    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2879        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2880
2881    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2882        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2883
2884    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2885        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2886
2887    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2888        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2889
2890    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2891        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2892
2893    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2894        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2895        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2896        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2897        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2898        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2899        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2900        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2901
2902    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2903        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2904        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2905
2906    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2907        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2908
2909    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2910        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2911            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2912        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2913
2914    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2915        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2916
2917    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2920        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2922        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2923        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2924
2925    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2927        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2928        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2929        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2930        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2931        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2932        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2933        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2934        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2935
2936    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2937        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2938        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2939        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2940        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2941
2942        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2943            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2944
2945        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2946
2947    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2948        return "BEGIN"
2949
2950    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2951        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2952        if chain is not None:
2953            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2954
2955        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2956
2957    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2958        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2959        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2960        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2961
2962    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964
2965        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2966        if dtype:
2967            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2968            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2969            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2970            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2971            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2972
2973        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2974        if default:
2975            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2976
2977        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2978        if comment:
2979            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2980
2981        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2982            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2983
2984        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2985
2986    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2989            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2990        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
2991
2992    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2993        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2996        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2997        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
2998
2999    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3000        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3001            # Remove db from tables
3002            expression = expression.transform(
3003                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3004            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3006        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3007
3008    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3009        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3010        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3012        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3013
3014    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3015        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3016
3017        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3018            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3019        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3020            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3021        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3022            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3023        else:
3024            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3025
3026        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3027        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3028        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3029        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3030        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3031
3032    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3033        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3034            return self.expressions(
3035                expression,
3036                key="actions",
3037                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3038            )
3039        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3040
3041    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3042        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3043        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3044        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3045
3046    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3047        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3048
3049    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3050        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3051
3052        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3053            case = exp.case()
3054            for arg in expression.expressions:
3055                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3056            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3057
3058        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3059
3060        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3061        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3062        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3063
3064    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3065        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3066
3067    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3068        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3069
3070    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3071        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3073        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3074        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3075
3076    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3077        return self.sql(
3078            exp.Cast(
3079                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3080                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3081            )
3082        )
3083
3084    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3085        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3086            return self.func(
3087                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3088            )
3089        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3090
3091    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3092        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3093
3094        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3095            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3096
3097        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3098            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3099                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3100
3101        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3102            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3103                return self.sql(
3104                    exp.cast(
3105                        l / r,
3106                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3107                    )
3108                )
3109
3110        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3111
3112    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3114
3115    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3117
3118    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3120
3121    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3123
3124    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3126
3127    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3129
3130    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3132
3133    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3135
3136    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3138
3139    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3141
3142    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3144
3145    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3146        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3147            return self.sql(
3148                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3149            )
3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3151
3152    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3154
3155    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3157
3158    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3160
3161    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3163
3164    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3166
3167    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3169
3170    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3171        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3172
3173    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3174        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3175
3176    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3177        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3178
3179    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3180        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3181
3182    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3184
3185    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3186        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3187
3188    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3189        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3190
3191    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3192        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3193            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3194            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3195
3196        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3197
3198    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3199        this = expression.this
3200        expr = expression.expression
3201
3202        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3203            this, expr = expr, this
3204        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3205            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3206                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3207
3208            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3209
3210        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3211
3212    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3213        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3214        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3217        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3218
3219    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3220        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3222
3223    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3224        args = []
3225
3226        for key in expression.arg_types:
3227            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3228
3229            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3230                for value in arg_value:
3231                    args.append(value)
3232            elif arg_value is not None:
3233                args.append(arg_value)
3234
3235        if self.normalize_functions:
3236            name = expression.sql_name()
3237        else:
3238            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3239
3240        return self.func(name, *args)
3241
3242    def func(
3243        self,
3244        name: str,
3245        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3246        prefix: str = "(",
3247        suffix: str = ")",
3248    ) -> str:
3249        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3250
3251    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3252        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3253        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3254            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3255        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3256
3257    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3258        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3259
3260    def format_time(
3261        self,
3262        expression: exp.Expression,
3263        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3264        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3265    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3266        return format_time(
3267            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3268            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3269            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3270        )
3271
3272    def expressions(
3273        self,
3274        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3275        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3276        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3277        flat: bool = False,
3278        indent: bool = True,
3279        skip_first: bool = False,
3280        skip_last: bool = False,
3281        sep: str = ", ",
3282        prefix: str = "",
3283        dynamic: bool = False,
3284        new_line: bool = False,
3285    ) -> str:
3286        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3287
3288        if not expressions:
3289            return ""
3290
3291        if flat:
3292            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3293
3294        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3295
3296        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3297        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3298            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3299
3300        result_sqls = []
3301        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3302            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3303            if not sql:
3304                continue
3305
3306            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3307
3308            if self.pretty:
3309                if self.leading_comma:
3310                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3311                else:
3312                    result_sqls.append(
3313                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3314                    )
3315            else:
3316                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3317
3318        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3319            if new_line:
3320                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3321                result_sqls.append("")
3322            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3323        else:
3324            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3325        return (
3326            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3327            if indent
3328            else result_sql
3329        )
3330
3331    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3332        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3333        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3334        if flat:
3335            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3336        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3337
3338    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3339        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3340        if not property_name:
3341            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3342        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3343
3344    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3345        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3346
3347    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3348        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3349
3350    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3353        expressions = (
3354            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3355        )
3356        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3357
3358    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3361        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3362
3363    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3365
3366    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3367        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3368        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3369        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3370        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3371
3372        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3373        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3374            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3375            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3376            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3377            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3378        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3379            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3380                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3381            else:
3382                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3383        else:
3384            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3385        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3386
3387    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3388        table = expression.this
3389        table_alias = ""
3390
3391        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3392        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3393            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3394            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3395
3396        this = self.sql(table)
3397        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3398        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3400        sep = self.sep()
3401
3402        return self.prepend_ctes(
3403            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3404        )
3405
3406    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3407        if expression.args.get("format"):
3408            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3409
3410        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3411
3412    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3413        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3414            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3415            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3416
3417        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3418        if not fmt:
3419            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3420            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3421
3422        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3423
3424    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3426        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3427        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3428        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3429        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3430
3431    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3433        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3434        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3435        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3436
3437    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3438        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3439
3440    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3441        return ""
3442
3443    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3445        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3446        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3447        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3448        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3449
3450    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3452        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3453
3454        if having:
3455            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3456
3457        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3458
3459    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3460        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3461        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3462        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3463        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3464        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3465        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3466        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3467        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3468        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3469        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3470        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3471        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3472        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3473
3474    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3475        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3476        if key_block_size:
3477            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3478
3479        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3480        if using:
3481            return f"USING {using}"
3482
3483        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3484        if parser:
3485            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3486
3487        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3488        if comment:
3489            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3490
3491        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3492        if visible is not None:
3493            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3494
3495        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3496        if engine_attr:
3497            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3498
3499        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3500        if secondary_engine_attr:
3501            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3502
3503        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3504        return ""
3505
3506    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3507        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3508        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3509
3510    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3511        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3512        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3515        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3516        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3518        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3519        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3520        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3521        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3522
3523    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3524        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3525            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3526
3527        case = exp.Case().when(
3528            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3529            expression.args["true"],
3530            copy=False,
3531        )
3532        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3533        if else_cond:
3534            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3535
3536        return self.sql(case)
3537
3538    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3540        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3541        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3542        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3543        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3544        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3545
3546    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3547        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3548
3549    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3550        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3551
3552    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3553        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3554        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3555        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3556        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3557        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3558        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3559
3560    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3563        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3564
3565    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3567        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3568        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3569
3570    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3571        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3572
3573    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3574        arg = expression.this
3575        if not arg.type:
3576            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3577
3578            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3579
3580        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3581            return self.sql(arg)
3582
3583        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3584        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3585
3586    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3587        this = expression.this
3588        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3589            return self.sql(this)
3590
3591        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3592
3593    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3594        this = expression.this
3595        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3596            return self.sql(this)
3597
3598        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3599
3600    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3601        this = expression.this
3602        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3603
3604        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3605            return self.sql(
3606                exp.cast(
3607                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3608                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3609                )
3610            )
3611
3612        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3613            return self.sql(this)
3614
3615        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3616
3617    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3618        return self.sql(
3619            exp.func(
3620                "DATEDIFF",
3621                expression.this,
3622                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3623                "day",
3624            )
3625        )
3626
3627    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3628        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3629            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3630
3631        unit = expression.text("unit")
3632        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3633            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3634
3635        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3636
3637    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3638        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3639
3640        return self.func(
3641            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3642        )
3643
3644    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3645        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3646            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3647            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3648            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3649            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3650
3651        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3652
3653        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3654        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3655            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3656
3657        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3658
3659    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3660        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3661        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3662
3663    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3664        expression.set(
3665            "expressions",
3666            [
3667                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3668                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3669                else e
3670                for e in expression.expressions
3671            ],
3672        )
3673
3674        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3675
3676    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3677        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3678        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3679
3680        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3681
3682    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3683        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3684        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3685
3686        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3687
3688        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3689        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3690
3691        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3692        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3693
3694        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3695        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3696
3697        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3698        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3699
3700        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3701
3702    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3703    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3704    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3705        to = expression.this
3706        value = expression.expression
3707        style = expression.args.get("style")
3708        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3709        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3710
3711        if not to or not value:
3712            return ""
3713
3714        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3715        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3716            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3717
3718        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3719        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3720
3721        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3722        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3723            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3724
3725            style_value = style.name
3726            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3727            if not converted_style:
3728                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3729
3730            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3731
3732            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3733                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3734            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3735                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3736            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3737                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3738            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3739                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3740
3741        if not transformed:
3742            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3743
3744        return self.sql(transformed)
3745
3746    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3747        this = expression.this
3748        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3749            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3750            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3751
3752        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3753            return f".{this}"
3754
3755        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3756        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3757
3758    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3759        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3760        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3761
3762    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3763        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3764            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3765
3766            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3767
3768        return expression
3769
3770    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3771        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3772            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3773            mods = sorted(
3774                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3775                key=lambda x: 0
3776                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3777                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3778            )
3779
3780            if mods:
3781                mod = mods[0]
3782                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3783                this.meta["inline"] = True
3784                mod.this.replace(this)
3785                return self.sql(expression.this)
3786
3787            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3788
3789            if agg_func:
3790                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3791
3792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3793
3794    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3795        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3796        if self.pretty:
3797            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3798        return string
3799
3800    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3801        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3802        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3803
3804        if not value:
3805            return option
3806
3807        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3808
3809        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3810
3811    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3812        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3813        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3814            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3815            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3816            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3817        else:
3818            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3819            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3820            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3821
3822        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3823        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3824
3825        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3826        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3827
3828        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3829        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3830
3831        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3832        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3833
3834        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3835
3836    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3838        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3839
3840        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3841        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3842        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3843        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3844
3845        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3846        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3847        if params:
3848            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3849
3850        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
546    def __init__(
547        self,
548        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
549        identify: str | bool = False,
550        normalize: bool = False,
551        pad: int = 2,
552        indent: int = 2,
553        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
554        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
555        max_unsupported: int = 3,
556        leading_comma: bool = False,
557        max_text_width: int = 80,
558        comments: bool = True,
559        dialect: DialectType = None,
560    ):
561        import sqlglot
562        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
563
564        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
565        self.identify = identify
566        self.normalize = normalize
567        self.pad = pad
568        self._indent = indent
569        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
570        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
571        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
572        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
573        self.comments = comments
574        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
575
576        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
577        self.normalize_functions = (
578            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
579        )
580
581        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
582        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
583            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
584        )
585        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
587        )
588
589        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
591    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
592        """
593        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
594
595        Args:
596            expression: The syntax tree.
597            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
598                it is safer to copy.
599
600        Returns:
601            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
602        """
603        if copy:
604            expression = expression.copy()
605
606        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
607
608        self.unsupported_messages = []
609        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
610
611        if self.pretty:
612            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
613
614        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
615            return sql
616
617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
618            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
619                logger.warning(msg)
620        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
621            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
622
623        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
625    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
626        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
627        if (
628            not expression.parent
629            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
630            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
631        ):
632            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
633
634            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
635
636        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
637            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
638
639            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
640
641        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
643    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
644        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
645            raise UnsupportedError(message)
646        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
648    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
649        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
651    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
652        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
654    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
655        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
656        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
657        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
659    def maybe_comment(
660        self,
661        sql: str,
662        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
663        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
664        separated: bool = False,
665    ) -> str:
666        comments = (
667            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
668            if self.comments
669            else None
670        )
671
672        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
673            return sql
674
675        comments_sql = " ".join(
676            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
677        )
678
679        if not comments_sql:
680            return sql
681
682        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
683
684        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
685            return (
686                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
687                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
688                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
689            )
690
691        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
693    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
694        this_sql = self.indent(
695            (
696                self.sql(expression)
697                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
698                else self.sql(expression, "this")
699            ),
700            level=1,
701            pad=0,
702        )
703        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
705    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
706        original = self.identify
707        self.identify = False
708        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
709        self.identify = original
710        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
712    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
713        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
714            return name.upper()
715        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
716            return name.lower()
717        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
719    def indent(
720        self,
721        sql: str,
722        level: int = 0,
723        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
724        skip_first: bool = False,
725        skip_last: bool = False,
726    ) -> str:
727        if not self.pretty:
728            return sql
729
730        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
731        lines = sql.split("\n")
732
733        return "\n".join(
734            (
735                line
736                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
737                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
738            )
739            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
740        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
742    def sql(
743        self,
744        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
745        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
746        comment: bool = True,
747    ) -> str:
748        if not expression:
749            return ""
750
751        if isinstance(expression, str):
752            return expression
753
754        if key:
755            value = expression.args.get(key)
756            if value:
757                return self.sql(value)
758            return ""
759
760        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
761
762        if callable(transform):
763            sql = transform(self, expression)
764        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
765            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
766
767            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
768                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
769            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
770                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
771            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
772                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
773            else:
774                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
775        else:
776            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
777
778        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
780    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
782        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
783        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
785    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
786        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
787        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
788        options = expression.args.get("options")
789        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
790        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
791        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
792        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
795    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
796        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
797            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
798        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
799        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
801    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
802        return ".".join(
803            self.sql(part)
804            for part in (
805                expression.args.get("catalog"),
806                expression.args.get("db"),
807                expression.args.get("table"),
808                expression.args.get("this"),
809            )
810            if part
811        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
813    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
814        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
815
816        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
817            join_mark = ""
818            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
819
820        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
822    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
824        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
825        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
826        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
828    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
829        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
830        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
831        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
832        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
833        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
834        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
835        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
836        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
837
838        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
839            kind = ""
840
841        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
843    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
846        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
848    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
851            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
852        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
853            persisted = " PERSISTED"
854        else:
855            persisted = ""
856        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
858    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
859        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
861    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
862        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
863            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
864        else:
865            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
866
867        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
869    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
870        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
871    ) -> str:
872        this = ""
873        if expression.this is not None:
874            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
875            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
876
877        start = expression.args.get("start")
878        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
879        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
880        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
881        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
882        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
883        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
884        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
885        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
886        cycle_sql = ""
887
888        if cycle is not None:
889            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
890            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
891
892        sequence_opts = ""
893        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
894            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
895            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
896
897        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
898        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
899
900        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
902    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
903        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
904    ) -> str:
905        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
906        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
907        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
909    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
910        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
911    ) -> str:
912        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
914    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
915        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
917    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
918        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
920    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
921        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
922        if desc is not None:
923            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
924        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
926    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
928        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
929        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
930        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
931        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
932        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
933        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
935    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 938    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 940        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 941        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 942
 943        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 944
 945        properties_sql = ""
 946        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 947            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 948        ):
 949            properties_sql = self.sql(
 950                exp.Properties(
 951                    expressions=[
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 953                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 954                    ]
 955                )
 956            )
 957
 958        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 959        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 960
 961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 962        if expression_sql:
 963            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 964
 965            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 966                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 967                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 968                        exp.Properties(
 969                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 970                        ),
 971                        wrapped=False,
 972                    )
 973                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 974                else:
 975                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 976
 977        postindex_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 979            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 981                wrapped=False,
 982                prefix=" ",
 983            )
 984
 985        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 986        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 987        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 988
 989        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 990        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 991
 992        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 993        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 994            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 995                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 996                sep=" ",
 997                prefix=" ",
 998                wrapped=False,
 999            )
1000
1001        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1002
1003        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1005            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(
1007                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1008                ),
1009                sep=" ",
1010                prefix=" ",
1011                wrapped=False,
1012            )
1013
1014        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1015        no_schema_binding = (
1016            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1017        )
1018
1019        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1020        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1021
1022        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1025    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1026        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1027        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1028        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1029        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1030        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1031        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1032        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1033        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1034        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1035        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1036
1037        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1038        if cache is None:
1039            cache_str = ""
1040        elif cache is True:
1041            cache_str = " CACHE"
1042        else:
1043            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1044
1045        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1047
1048        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1050    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1053        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1054        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1056    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1057        style = expression.args.get("style")
1058        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1059        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1061    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1062        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1063        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1065    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1066        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1067        if with_:
1068            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1069        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1071    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1072        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1073        recursive = (
1074            "RECURSIVE "
1075            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1076            else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1081    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1082        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1083
1084        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1085        if materialized is False:
1086            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1087        elif materialized:
1088            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1089
1090        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1092    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1093        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1095        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1096
1097        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1098            columns = ""
1099            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1100
1101        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1102            alias = self._next_name()
1103
1104        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1106    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1112    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1116        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1118    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1121            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1122        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1124    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1127
1128        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1129            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1130            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1131
1132        if escape:
1133            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1134        else:
1135            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1136
1137        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1138        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1140    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1141        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1144    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1147        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1148        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1150    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1151        type_value = expression.this
1152
1153        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1154            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1155        else:
1156            type_sql = (
1157                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1158                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1159                else type_value
1160            )
1161
1162        nested = ""
1163        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        values = ""
1165
1166        if interior:
1167            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1168                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1169                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1170                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1171                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1172                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1173            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1174                nested = f" {interior}"
1175            else:
1176                nested = f"({interior})"
1177
1178        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1179        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1181            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1182        ):
1183            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1184
1185        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1187    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1188        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1189        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1190        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1191        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1193    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1196        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1197        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1200        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1201        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1202        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1203        if self.RETURNING_END:
1204            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1205        else:
1206            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1209    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1213        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1214        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1215        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1216        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1217        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1218        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1219        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1220        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1222    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1223        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1225    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1226        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1228    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1229        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1230        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1231        count = expression.args.get("count")
1232        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1233        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1234            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1235        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1236        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1238    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1239        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1240            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1242            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1243
1244        agg = expression.this
1245        agg_arg = agg.this
1246        cond = expression.expression.this
1247        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1248        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1250    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1251        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1252            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1253            return ""
1254
1255        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1257    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1258        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1259        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1260        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1261        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1262        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1263        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1264        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1265        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1266        if include:
1267            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1268        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1269        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1270        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1271        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1272
1273        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1275    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1276        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1277        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1278        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1279        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1281        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1282        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1283
1284        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1285
1286        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1287        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1289    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1290        text = expression.name
1291        lower = text.lower()
1292        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1293        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1294        if (
1295            expression.quoted
1296            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1297            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1298            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1299        ):
1300            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1301        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1303    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1304        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1305        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1306        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1307        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1308        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1310    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1311        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1312        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1314    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1315        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1317    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1318        root_properties = []
1319        with_properties = []
1320
1321        for p in expression.expressions:
1322            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1323            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1324                with_properties.append(p)
1325            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1326                root_properties.append(p)
1327
1328        return self.root_properties(
1329            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1330        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1332    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1333        if properties.expressions:
1334            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1335        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1337    def properties(
1338        self,
1339        properties: exp.Properties,
1340        prefix: str = "",
1341        sep: str = ", ",
1342        suffix: str = "",
1343        wrapped: bool = True,
1344    ) -> str:
1345        if properties.expressions:
1346            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1347            if expressions:
1348                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1349                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1350        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1352    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1353        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1355    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1356        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1357        for p in properties.expressions:
1358            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1359            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1360                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1361            else:
1362                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1363
1364        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1366    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1368            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1371    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1372        property_cls = expression.__class__
1373        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1374            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1375
1376        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1377        if not property_name:
1378            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1379
1380        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1382    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1383        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1384            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1385            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1386
1387            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1388            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1389                like = f"({like})"
1390
1391            return like
1392
1393        if expression.expressions:
1394            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1395
1396        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1397        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1399    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1400        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1401        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1402        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1404    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1405        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1406        local = expression.args.get("local")
1407        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1408        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1409        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1410        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1411        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1413    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1414        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1415        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1416        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1418    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1419        if expression.args.get("default"):
1420            property = "DEFAULT"
1421        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1422            property = "ON"
1423        else:
1424            property = "OFF"
1425        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1427    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1428        if expression.args.get("no"):
1429            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1430        if expression.args.get("default"):
1431            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1432
1433        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1434        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1436    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1437        default = expression.args.get("default")
1438        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1439        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1440        if default or minimum or maximum:
1441            if default:
1442                prop = "DEFAULT"
1443            elif minimum:
1444                prop = "MINIMUM"
1445            else:
1446                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1447            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1448        units = expression.args.get("units")
1449        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1450        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1452    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1453        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1454        always = expression.args.get("always")
1455        default = expression.args.get("default")
1456        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1457        never = expression.args.get("never")
1458
1459        if autotemp is not None:
1460            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1461        elif always:
1462            prop = "ALWAYS"
1463        elif default:
1464            prop = "DEFAULT"
1465        elif manual:
1466            prop = "MANUAL"
1467        elif never:
1468            prop = "NEVER"
1469        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1471    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1472        no = expression.args.get("no")
1473        no = " NO" if no else ""
1474        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1475        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1476        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1477        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1478        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1480    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1481        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1482            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1483        if expression.this:
1484            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1485            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1486            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1487
1488        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1489        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1490        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1492    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494
1495        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1496        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1497            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1498        else:
1499            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1500
1501        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1503    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1504        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1505        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1506        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1507        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1508        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1509        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1510        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1512    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1513        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1514        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1515        statistics_sql = ""
1516        if statistics is not None:
1517            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1518        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1520    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1521        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1522
1523        if expression.this:
1524            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1526
1527            if expression.expression:
1528                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1529                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1530
1531            sql = f"{sql})"
1532
1533        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1535    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1536        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1537        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1538
1539        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1540            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1541        else:
1542            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1543
1544        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1545        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1546        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1547        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1548        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1549        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1550        if is_function:
1551            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1552        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1553
1554        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1555        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1556        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1557        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1558        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1559        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1560        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1561        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1562
1563        if self.RETURNING_END:
1564            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1565        else:
1566            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1567
1568        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1569        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1571    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1572        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1574    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1575        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1577    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1578        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1580    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1582        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1584        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1585        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1587    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1588        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1590    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1591        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1593    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1594        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1595
1596        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1597        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1598
1599        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1600        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1601        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1602
1603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1604        if expressions:
1605            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1606            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1607
1608        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1610    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1611        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1613    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1614        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1615        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1616        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1617        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1618        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1619        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1620        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1621        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1622        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1623        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1624        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1625        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1626        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1628    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1629        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1631    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1632        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1633        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1634        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1635        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1637    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1639        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1640        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1641        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1643    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1644        return ".".join(
1645            self.sql(part)
1646            for part in (
1647                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1648                expression.args.get("db"),
1649                expression.args.get("this"),
1650            )
1651            if part is not None
1652        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1654    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1655        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1656        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1657        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1658        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1659        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1660        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1661        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1662        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1663        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1664        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1665        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1666        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1667        joins = self.indent(
1668            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1669        )
1670        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1671
1672        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1673        if file_format:
1674            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1675            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1676            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1677
1678        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1679        if ordinality:
1680            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1681            alias = ""
1682
1683        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1684        if when:
1685            table = f"{table} {when}"
1686
1687        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1689    def tablesample_sql(
1690        self,
1691        expression: exp.TableSample,
1692        sep: str = " AS ",
1693        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1694    ) -> str:
1695        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1696            table = expression.this.copy()
1697            table.set("alias", None)
1698            this = self.sql(table)
1699            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1700        else:
1701            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702            alias = ""
1703
1704        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1705        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1706        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1707        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1708        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1709        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1710        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1711        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1712        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1713
1714        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1715        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1716            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1717
1718        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1719        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1720            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1721
1722        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1723        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1724            expr = f"({expr})"
1725
1726        return (
1727            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1728        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1730    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1731        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1732
1733        if expression.this:
1734            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735            if not expressions:
1736                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1737
1738            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1739            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1740            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1741            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1742            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1743
1744        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1745        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1746        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1747        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1748        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1749        if include_nulls is not None:
1750            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1751        else:
1752            nulls = ""
1753        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1755    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1756        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1757        kind = expression.text("kind")
1758        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1759        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1761    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1762        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1764    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1766        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1767        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1768        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1769        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1770        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1771        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1772        if self.RETURNING_END:
1773            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1774        else:
1775            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1776        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1779    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1780        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1781
1782        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1783        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1784            args = self.expressions(expression)
1785            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1786            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1787            values = (
1788                f"({values})"
1789                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1790                else values
1791            )
1792            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1793
1794        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1795        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1796        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1797
1798        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1799
1800        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1801            row = tup.expressions
1802
1803            if i == 0 and column_names:
1804                row = [
1805                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1806                ]
1807
1808            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1809
1810        if self.pretty:
1811            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1812            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1813            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1814            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1815            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1816
1817        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1818        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1819        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1821    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1822        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1824    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1825        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1826        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1827        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1829    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1830        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1832    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1833        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1834        if group_by_all is True:
1835            modifier = " ALL"
1836        elif group_by_all is False:
1837            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1838        else:
1839            modifier = ""
1840
1841        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1842
1843        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1844        grouping_sets = (
1845            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1846        )
1847
1848        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1849        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1850            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1851        else:
1852            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1853            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1854
1855        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1856        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1857            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1858        else:
1859            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1860            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1861
1862        groupings = csv(
1863            grouping_sets,
1864            cube_sql,
1865            rollup_sql,
1866            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1867            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1868        )
1869
1870        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1871            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1872
1873        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1875    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1876        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1877        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1879    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1880        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1881        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1882        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1883        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1884        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1885        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1887    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1888        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1890    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1891        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1892            side = None
1893        else:
1894            side = expression.side
1895
1896        op_sql = " ".join(
1897            op
1898            for op in (
1899                expression.method,
1900                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1901                side,
1902                expression.kind,
1903                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1904            )
1905            if op
1906        )
1907        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1908        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1909        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1910        using = expression.args.get("using")
1911
1912        if not on_sql and using:
1913            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1914
1915        this = expression.this
1916        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1917
1918        if on_sql:
1919            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1920            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1921            if using:
1922                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1923            else:
1924                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1925        elif not op_sql:
1926            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1927                return f" {this_sql}"
1928
1929            return f", {this_sql}"
1930
1931        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1932        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1934    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1935        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1936        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1937        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1939    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1940        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1941
1942        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1943        if cross_apply is True:
1944            op = "INNER JOIN "
1945        elif cross_apply is False:
1946            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1947        else:
1948            op = ""
1949
1950        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1952    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954
1955        if expression.args.get("view"):
1956            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1957            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1958            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1959            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1960            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1961            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1962
1963        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1964        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1965        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1967    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969
1970        args = [
1971            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1972            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1973            if e
1974        ]
1975
1976        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1977        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1978        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1979        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1980
1981        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1983    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        value = expression.expression
1986        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1987        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1988        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1989        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1991    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1992        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1993        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1996        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1997        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1998        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1999        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2001    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2002        expressions = (
2003            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2004        )
2005        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2006        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2008    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2009        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2011    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2012        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2013            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2014            return ""
2015
2016        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2017        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2018        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2019        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2020
2021        if wait is not None:
2022            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2023                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2024            else:
2025                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2026
2027        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2029    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2030        text = expression.this or ""
2031        if expression.is_string:
2032            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2033        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2035    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2036        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2037            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2038            text = "".join(
2039                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2040            )
2041
2042        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2043            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2044        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2046    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2047        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2048        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2049        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2050        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2051        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2052        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2053        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2054        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2055        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2056        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2057        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2059    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2060        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2062    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2063        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2065    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2068        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2069        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2070        interpolated_values = [
2071            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2072            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2073        ]
2074        interpolate = (
2075            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2076        )
2077        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2079    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2080        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2081        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2082        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2083        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2084        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2085        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2086        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2088    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2089        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2091    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2092        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2094    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2095        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2097    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2098        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2099        asc = not desc
2100
2101        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2102        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2103        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2104        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2105        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2106
2107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2108
2109        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2110        nulls_sort_change = ""
2111        if nulls_first and (
2112            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2113        ):
2114            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2115        elif (
2116            nulls_last
2117            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2118            and not nulls_are_last
2119        ):
2120            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2121
2122        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2123        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2124            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2125            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2126                self.unsupported(
2127                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2128                )
2129                nulls_sort_change = ""
2130            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2131                if expression.this.is_int:
2132                    self.unsupported(
2133                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2134                    )
2135                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2136                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2137                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2138                nulls_sort_change = ""
2139
2140        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2141        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2142
2143        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2145    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2146        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2147        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2148
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150
2151        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2153    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2154        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2155        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2156        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2157        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2158        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2159        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2160        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2161        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2162        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2163        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2164        definition_sqls = [
2165            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2166            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2167        ]
2168        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2169        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2170        body = "".join(
2171            (
2172                partition,
2173                order,
2174                measures,
2175                rows,
2176                after,
2177                pattern,
2178                define,
2179            )
2180        )
2181        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2182        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2183        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2185    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2186        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2187
2188        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2189            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2190        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2191            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2192
2193        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2194        if options:
2195            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2196
2197        return csv(
2198            *sqls,
2199            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2200            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2201            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2202            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2203            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2204            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2205            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2206            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2207            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2208            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2209            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2210            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2211            options,
2212            sep="",
2213        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2215    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2216        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2218    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2219        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2220    ) -> t.List[str]:
2221        return [
2222            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2223            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2224        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2226    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2227        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2228        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2229        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2231    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2232        into = expression.args.get("into")
2233        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2234            into.pop()
2235
2236        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2237        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2238        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2239        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2240
2241        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2242        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2243            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2244            limit.pop()
2245        else:
2246            top = ""
2247
2248        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2249
2250        if kind:
2251            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2252                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2253            else:
2254                if kind == "STRUCT":
2255                    expressions = self.expressions(
2256                        sqls=[
2257                            self.sql(
2258                                exp.Struct(
2259                                    expressions=[
2260                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2261                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2262                                        else e
2263                                        for e in expression.expressions
2264                                    ]
2265                                )
2266                            )
2267                        ]
2268                    )
2269                kind = ""
2270
2271        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2272        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2273        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2274        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2275        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2276            expression,
2277            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2278            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2279            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2280        )
2281
2282        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2283
2284        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2285            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2286                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2287            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2288                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2289            else:
2290                table_kind = ""
2291            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2292
2293        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2295    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2298        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2300    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2301        if expression.expressions:
2302            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2303        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2305    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2306        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2307        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2308        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2309        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2310        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2312    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2314        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2316    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        kind = expression.text("kind")
2319        if kind:
2320            kind = f"{kind}."
2321        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2323    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2324        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2326    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2327        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2328        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2329
2330        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2331        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2332
2333        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2334        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2336    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2337        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2338        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2340    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2341        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2342            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2343            order = expression.args.get("order")
2344
2345            if limit or order:
2346                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2347
2348                if limit:
2349                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2350                if order:
2351                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2352                return self.sql(select)
2353
2354        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2355        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2356
2357        while stack:
2358            node = stack.pop()
2359
2360            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2361                stack.append(node.expression)
2362                stack.append(
2363                    self.maybe_comment(
2364                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2365                        comments=node.comments,
2366                        separated=True,
2367                    )
2368                )
2369                stack.append(node.this)
2370            else:
2371                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2372
2373        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2374        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2377    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2378        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2380    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2381        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2382        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2383        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2384        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2386    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2387        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2388
2389        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2390        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2391
2392        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2393            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2394                alias.append("columns", offset)
2395
2396        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2397            columns = alias.columns
2398            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2399        else:
2400            alias = self.sql(alias)
2401
2402        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2403        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2404            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2405        else:
2406            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2407                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2408            elif offset:
2409                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2410            else:
2411                suffix = alias
2412
2413        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2415    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2416        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2418    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2419        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2420        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2422    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2425        order = expression.args.get("order")
2426        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2427        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2428        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2429        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2430
2431        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2432
2433        first = expression.args.get("first")
2434        if first is None:
2435            first = ""
2436        else:
2437            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2438
2439        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2440            return f"{this} {alias}"
2441
2442        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2443        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2445    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2446        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2447        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2449    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2450        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2451        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2452        end = (
2453            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2454            or "CURRENT ROW"
2455        )
2456        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2458    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2460        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2461        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2463    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2466        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2467        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2469    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2470        return apply_index_offset(
2471            expression.this,
2472            expression.expressions,
2473            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2474        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2476    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2477        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2478        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2479        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2481    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2482        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2484    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2487            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2488                this = self.wrap(this)
2489            return f"ANY{this}"
2490        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2492    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2493        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2495    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2498
2499        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2500            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2501            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2502
2503        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2504
2505        if default:
2506            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2507
2508        statements.append("END")
2509
2510        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2511            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2512
2513        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2515    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2518        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2520    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2521        order = expression.args.get("order")
2522        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2523        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2525    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2527        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2528        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2530    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2531        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2532
2533        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2534            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2535        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2536            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2537        else:
2538            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2540    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2541        args = expression.expressions
2542        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2543            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2544
2545        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2546            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2547
2548        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2549            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2550
2551        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2553    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2554        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2555
2556        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2557        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2558            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2559
2560        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2562    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2563        return self.func(
2564            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2565        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2567    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2569        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2571    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2573        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2574        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2575        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2576        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2577        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2578        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2579        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2581    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2582        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2583        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2584        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2585        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2587    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2588        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2590    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2591        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2592        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2593        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2595    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2596        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2598    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2599        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2600        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2602    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2603        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2604            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2605            if not callable(transform):
2606                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2607                return ""
2608
2609            return transform(self, expression)
2610
2611        if isinstance(expression, int):
2612            return str(expression)
2613
2614        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2615            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2616            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2617        else:
2618            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2619            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2620
2621        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2623    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2624        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2626    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2627        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2628        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2629
2630        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2631        if unique_keys is not None:
2632            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2633        else:
2634            unique_keys = ""
2635
2636        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2637        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2638        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2639        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2640
2641        return self.func(
2642            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2643            *expression.expressions,
2644            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2645        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2647    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2648        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2650    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2651        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2652        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2653        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2654        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2655        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2656        return self.func(
2657            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2658        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2660    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2662        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2663        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2664        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2665        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2666        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2667        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2668        return self.func(
2669            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2670            this,
2671            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2672        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2674    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2676        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2677        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2678
2679        if nested_schema:
2680            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2681
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2684        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2685        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2687    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2688        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2690    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2692        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2693        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2694        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2695        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2696        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2697        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2698        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2699        return self.func(
2700            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2701        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2703    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2706        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2707        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2708        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2709        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2711    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2715        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2716        with_ = (
2717            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2718            if expressions
2719            else ""
2720        )
2721        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2723    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2724        query = expression.args.get("query")
2725        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2726        field = expression.args.get("field")
2727        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2728
2729        if query:
2730            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2731        elif unnest:
2732            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2733        elif field:
2734            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2735        else:
2736            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2737
2738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2740    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2741        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2743    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2744        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2745        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2746            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2747        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2748
2749        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2750            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2751            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2752
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        if this:
2755            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2756            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2757
2758        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2760    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2761        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2763    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2766        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2767        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2768        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2769        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2771    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2772        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2774    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2775        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2776        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2778    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2779        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2780        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2781        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2782        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2784    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2785        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2787    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2788        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2789        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2792    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2793        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2794        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2795
2796        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2797            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2798        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2799            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2800
2801        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2803    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2804        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2806    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2808        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2809        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2811    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2814        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2816    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2818        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2819        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2821    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2824    def and_sql(
2825        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2826    ) -> str:
2827        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2829    def or_sql(
2830        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2831    ) -> str:
2832        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2834    def xor_sql(
2835        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2836    ) -> str:
2837        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2839    def connector_sql(
2840        self,
2841        expression: exp.Connector,
2842        op: str,
2843        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2844    ) -> str:
2845        if stack is not None:
2846            if expression.expressions:
2847                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2848            else:
2849                stack.append(expression.right)
2850                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2851                    for comment in expression.comments:
2852                        if comment:
2853                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2854                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2855            return op
2856
2857        stack = [expression]
2858        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2859        ops = set()
2860
2861        while stack:
2862            node = stack.pop()
2863            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2864                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2865            else:
2866                sql = self.sql(node)
2867                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2868                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2869                else:
2870                    sqls.append(sql)
2871
2872        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2873        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2875    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2876        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2878    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2879        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2881    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2882        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2884    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2885        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2887    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2888        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2890    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2891        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2893    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2894        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2895        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2896        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2897        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2898        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2899        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2900        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2902    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2903        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2904        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2906    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2907        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2909    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2910        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2911            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2912        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2914    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2915        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2917    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2920        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2921        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2922        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2923        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2925    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2927        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2928        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2929        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2930        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2931        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2932        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2933        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2934        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2936    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2937        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2938        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2939        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2940        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2941
2942        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2943            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2944
2945        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2947    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2948        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2950    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2951        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2952        if chain is not None:
2953            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2954
2955        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2957    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2958        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2959        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2960        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2962    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964
2965        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2966        if dtype:
2967            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2968            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2969            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2970            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2971            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2972
2973        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2974        if default:
2975            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2976
2977        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2978        if comment:
2979            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2980
2981        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2982            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2983
2984        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2986    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2989            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2990        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2992    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2993        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2996        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2997        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2999    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3000        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3001            # Remove db from tables
3002            expression = expression.transform(
3003                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3004            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3006        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3008    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3009        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3010        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3012        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3014    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3015        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3016
3017        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3018            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3019        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3020            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3021        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3022            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3023        else:
3024            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3025
3026        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3027        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3028        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3029        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3030        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3032    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3033        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3034            return self.expressions(
3035                expression,
3036                key="actions",
3037                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3038            )
3039        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3041    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3042        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3043        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3044        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3046    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3047        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3049    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3050        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3051
3052        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3053            case = exp.case()
3054            for arg in expression.expressions:
3055                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3056            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3057
3058        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3059
3060        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3061        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3062        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3064    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3065        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3067    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3068        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3070    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3071        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3073        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3074        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3076    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3077        return self.sql(
3078            exp.Cast(
3079                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3080                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3081            )
3082        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3084    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3085        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3086            return self.func(
3087                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3088            )
3089        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3091    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3092        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3093
3094        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3095            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3096
3097        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3098            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3099                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3100
3101        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3102            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3103                return self.sql(
3104                    exp.cast(
3105                        l / r,
3106                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3107                    )
3108                )
3109
3110        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3112    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3115    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3118    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3121    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3124    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3127    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3130    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3133    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3136    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3139    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3142    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3145    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3146        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3147            return self.sql(
3148                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3149            )
3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3152    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3155    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3158    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3161    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3164    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3167    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3170    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3171        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3173    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3174        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3176    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3177        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3179    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3180        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3182    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3185    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3186        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3188    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3189        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3191    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3192        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3193            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3194            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3195
3196        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3198    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3199        this = expression.this
3200        expr = expression.expression
3201
3202        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3203            this, expr = expr, this
3204        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3205            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3206                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3207
3208            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3209
3210        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3212    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3213        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3214        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3217        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3219    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3220        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3223    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3224        args = []
3225
3226        for key in expression.arg_types:
3227            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3228
3229            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3230                for value in arg_value:
3231                    args.append(value)
3232            elif arg_value is not None:
3233                args.append(arg_value)
3234
3235        if self.normalize_functions:
3236            name = expression.sql_name()
3237        else:
3238            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3239
3240        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3242    def func(
3243        self,
3244        name: str,
3245        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3246        prefix: str = "(",
3247        suffix: str = ")",
3248    ) -> str:
3249        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3251    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3252        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3253        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3254            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3255        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3257    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3258        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3260    def format_time(
3261        self,
3262        expression: exp.Expression,
3263        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3264        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3265    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3266        return format_time(
3267            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3268            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3269            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3270        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3272    def expressions(
3273        self,
3274        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3275        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3276        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3277        flat: bool = False,
3278        indent: bool = True,
3279        skip_first: bool = False,
3280        skip_last: bool = False,
3281        sep: str = ", ",
3282        prefix: str = "",
3283        dynamic: bool = False,
3284        new_line: bool = False,
3285    ) -> str:
3286        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3287
3288        if not expressions:
3289            return ""
3290
3291        if flat:
3292            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3293
3294        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3295
3296        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3297        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3298            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3299
3300        result_sqls = []
3301        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3302            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3303            if not sql:
3304                continue
3305
3306            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3307
3308            if self.pretty:
3309                if self.leading_comma:
3310                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3311                else:
3312                    result_sqls.append(
3313                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3314                    )
3315            else:
3316                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3317
3318        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3319            if new_line:
3320                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3321                result_sqls.append("")
3322            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3323        else:
3324            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3325        return (
3326            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3327            if indent
3328            else result_sql
3329        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3331    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3332        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3333        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3334        if flat:
3335            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3336        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3338    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3339        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3340        if not property_name:
3341            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3342        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3344    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3345        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3347    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3348        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3350    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3353        expressions = (
3354            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3355        )
3356        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3358    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3361        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3363    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3366    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3367        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3368        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3369        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3370        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3371
3372        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3373        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3374            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3375            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3376            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3377            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3378        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3379            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3380                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3381            else:
3382                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3383        else:
3384            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3385        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3387    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3388        table = expression.this
3389        table_alias = ""
3390
3391        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3392        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3393            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3394            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3395
3396        this = self.sql(table)
3397        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3398        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3400        sep = self.sep()
3401
3402        return self.prepend_ctes(
3403            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3404        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3406    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3407        if expression.args.get("format"):
3408            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3409
3410        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3412    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3413        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3414            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3415            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3416
3417        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3418        if not fmt:
3419            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3420            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3421
3422        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3424    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3426        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3427        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3428        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3429        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3431    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3433        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3434        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3435        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3437    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3438        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3440    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3441        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3443    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3445        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3446        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3447        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3448        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3450    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3452        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3453
3454        if having:
3455            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3456
3457        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3459    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3460        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3461        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3462        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3463        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3464        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3465        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3466        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3467        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3468        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3469        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3470        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3471        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3472        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3474    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3475        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3476        if key_block_size:
3477            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3478
3479        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3480        if using:
3481            return f"USING {using}"
3482
3483        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3484        if parser:
3485            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3486
3487        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3488        if comment:
3489            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3490
3491        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3492        if visible is not None:
3493            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3494
3495        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3496        if engine_attr:
3497            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3498
3499        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3500        if secondary_engine_attr:
3501            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3502
3503        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3504        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3506    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3507        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3508        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3510    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3511        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3512        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3515        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3516        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3518        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3519        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3520        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3521        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3523    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3524        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3525            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3526
3527        case = exp.Case().when(
3528            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3529            expression.args["true"],
3530            copy=False,
3531        )
3532        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3533        if else_cond:
3534            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3535
3536        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3538    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3540        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3541        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3542        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3543        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3544        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3546    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3547        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3549    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3550        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3552    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3553        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3554        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3555        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3556        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3557        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3558        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3560    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3563        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3565    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3567        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3568        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3570    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3571        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3573    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3574        arg = expression.this
3575        if not arg.type:
3576            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3577
3578            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3579
3580        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3581            return self.sql(arg)
3582
3583        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3584        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3586    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3587        this = expression.this
3588        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3589            return self.sql(this)
3590
3591        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3593    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3594        this = expression.this
3595        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3596            return self.sql(this)
3597
3598        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3600    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3601        this = expression.this
3602        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3603
3604        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3605            return self.sql(
3606                exp.cast(
3607                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3608                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3609                )
3610            )
3611
3612        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3613            return self.sql(this)
3614
3615        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3617    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3618        return self.sql(
3619            exp.func(
3620                "DATEDIFF",
3621                expression.this,
3622                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3623                "day",
3624            )
3625        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3627    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3628        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3629            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3630
3631        unit = expression.text("unit")
3632        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3633            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3634
3635        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3637    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3638        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3639
3640        return self.func(
3641            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3642        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3644    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3645        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3646            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3647            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3648            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3649            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3650
3651        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3652
3653        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3654        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3655            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3656
3657        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3659    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3660        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3661        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3663    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3664        expression.set(
3665            "expressions",
3666            [
3667                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3668                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3669                else e
3670                for e in expression.expressions
3671            ],
3672        )
3673
3674        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3676    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3677        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3678        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3679
3680        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3682    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3683        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3684        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3685
3686        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3687
3688        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3689        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3690
3691        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3692        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3693
3694        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3695        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3696
3697        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3698        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3699
3700        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3704    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3705        to = expression.this
3706        value = expression.expression
3707        style = expression.args.get("style")
3708        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3709        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3710
3711        if not to or not value:
3712            return ""
3713
3714        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3715        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3716            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3717
3718        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3719        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3720
3721        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3722        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3723            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3724
3725            style_value = style.name
3726            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3727            if not converted_style:
3728                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3729
3730            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3731
3732            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3733                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3734            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3735                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3736            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3737                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3738            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3739                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3740
3741        if not transformed:
3742            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3743
3744        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3800    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3801        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3802        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3803
3804        if not value:
3805            return option
3806
3807        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3808
3809        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3811    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3812        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3813        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3814            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3815            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3816            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3817        else:
3818            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3819            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3820            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3821
3822        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3823        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3824
3825        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3826        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3827
3828        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3829        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3830
3831        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3832        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3833
3834        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3836    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3838        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3839
3840        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3841        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3842        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3843        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3844
3845        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3846        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3847        if params:
3848            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3849
3850        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"